In February 1929, the Spanish dancer Antonia Mercé Luque, better known as La Argentina, arrived in the Philippines during her groundbreaking international tour. This pioneering journey marked a significant expansion of Spanish dance, introducing it to traditional stage circuits across the Americas as well as cities in Asia and Oceania. The Philippines, a former Spanish colony, represents a particularly intriguing case for analyzing the impact of her work. During her visit, La Argentina honored Philippine culture by creating a piece inspired by the cariñosa–a traditional Spanish colonial dance–which she subsequently integrated into her international repertoire.
La Argentina’s brief visit to Manila and the creation of her solo piece, La cariñosa, highlight how early 20th-century Spanish dance served as a colonial gesture, presenting Spanish dance as both a colonizing force and one that was itself influenced by colonial contexts. This solo stylized the Filipino national dance for Western audiences, ostensibly paying tribute to the Filipino people. However, it also obscured a deeper colonial power dynamic, framing the performance in the context of a shared Hispanidad—a constructed cultural policy that promoted a fictive unity in the postcolonial Philippines.
Stills from footage of a 1929 performance of the Philippine cariñosa by La Argentina in Manila.
Like her earlier Latin American tour, La Argentina’s Asian tour should be viewed in the context of other contemporary Western dancers who were effectively conducting a type of fieldwork. Many of these dancers sought artistic and documentary inspiration from cultures considered exotic to Western audiences, primarily drawing from influences in India and Southeast Asia, as well as Indigenous American traditions. By the time La Argentina arrived in the Philippines, her artistic vision had already gained legitimacy within the dominant circles of Western culture. Her critical and public success, especially after founding her company, Les Ballets Espagnols–a name that mirrored Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes–in the autumn of 1927, further elevated her status. The acclaim she received from her peers further solidified her position as the foremost international exponent of Spanish dance.
This according to “Antonia Mercé ‘La Argentina’ in the Philippines: Spanish dance and colonial gesture” by Idoia Murga Castro (Dance research journal 54/3 [2022] 45–67; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2022-16064).
Below is a performance of the cariñosa folk dance of the Philippines.
Kris Kristofferson stands out as one of the few entertainers to carve out distinct careers in both music and acting. A former Rhodes scholar, he became a celebrated songwriter and performer, while also establishing himself as a prominent actor in the late 1970s. Ironically, despite his success with best-selling singles and albums, he seldom sang in his film roles, which primarily showcased his dramatic talents. Throughout the years, Kristofferson faced personal challenges but consistently found ways to reinvent his career in the entertainment industry. He played a pivotal role in revitalizing Nashville’s stagnant country music scene of the early 1970s with his innovative songs and performances. Additionally, he garnered critical acclaim, receiving the Best Actor award from the Foreign Press Association for his performance in the musical A Star Is Born (1976).
Born in Brownsville, Texas, on June 22, 1936, Kristofferson learned to play guitar in high school, and at Pomona College in Claremont, he excelled in both athletics–competing in football, soccer, and boxing–and academics. A talented writer, he won four short story contests hosted by Atlantic Monthly and earned a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford University, where he studied the works of William Blake. However, after several of his books went unpublished, Kristofferson became disillusioned with academia and turned to songwriting, performing in England under the name Kris Carson.
Kristofferson on Johnny Cash’s variety show.
The mid- and late 1960s proved to be challenging years for Kristofferson. He juggled jobs as a janitor at Columbia Records by night and a bartender at the Tally Ho Tavern by day, all while promoting his songs. Despite the hardships, he remained determined to push his material. In the summer of 1969, Roger Miller scored a hit with Kristofferson’s Me and Bobby McGee, which also became a popular track for Janis Joplin. That same year, Kristofferson gained recognition with a successful performance at the Newport Folk Festival and made multiple appearances on Johnny Cash’s ABC TV variety show. His career began to gain momentum as he signed a record contract with Monument, and his songs were picked up by artists like Ray Price, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Ronnie Milsap. Additionally, a successful engagement at the Troubadour in Los Angeles during the summer of 1970 solidified his reputation as a nightclub attraction.
Kris Kristofferson passed away on 28 September 2024. Read his full bio in Hollywood songsters: Singers who act and actors who sing—A biographical dictionary (2003). Find it in RILM Music Encyclopedias.
Listen to a performance of The silver tongued devil and I below.
Arriving in India in the mid-1930s in search of performance opportunities and a better quality of life, African American jazz musicians significantly contributed to the growth of jazz and Western popular music in the country. In 1935, Bombay’s premier hotel, the Taj Mahal, hired the first all-African-American jazz band to play in India. The eight-member band, led by Leon Abbey, a violinist from Minnesota, included a host of experienced musicians who had performed alongside jazz legends. Their success and influence attracted local Anglo-Indian and Goan musicians, who began to perform jazz in the cosmopolitan centers of India. In Bombay, Goan musicians incorporated Western popular music into local cabaret performances and even into early film songs. In this context, African American musicians played a pivotal role in broadening the landscape of Western popular music in India, shaping early Bombay cabaret songs and the hybrid sounds of the emerging film industry.
Goan jazz musician Rudy Cotton.
Members of Duke Ellington’s orchestra in India with tabla player Chatur Lal.
The presence of jazz orchestras in Bombay during the 1940s and 1950s highlighted various historical connections. These orchestras supplied essential musical resources for creating cabaret scenes in Hindi-language films. African American jazz musicians residing in India inspired local musicians to join urban jazz orchestras, which led to the development of a vibrant jazz cabaret economy. This economy was centered around recording in film studios, collaborating with film music composers, performing as backdrop dance bands in movies, and engaging in ghost composing and arranging.
Furthermore, ragtime and jazz were performed in Calcutta’s hotels and clubs, which were vital to the social lives of the elite during colonial India. While the musicians were often European or American, especially when foreign bands were brought in for a season, some ensembles included Anglo-Indian members. These Anglo-Indian musicians served as intermediaries, transmitting theoretical knowledge of Western harmony and teaching the use of Western instruments to subsequent generations of musicians in post-independence India. They were also the first Indian musicians to perform jazz and blues standards in Calcutta and Bombay around World War II, playing a significant role in the spread of jazz and blues music throughout the country.
This according to “Orchestras and musical intersections with regimental bands, blackface minstrel troupes, and jazz in India, 1830s–1940s” by Bradley G. Shope, Global perspectives on orchestras: Collective creativity and social agency, ed. by Tina K. Ramnarine (New York City: Oxford University Press, 2017, 226–241; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2017-33724), and “Jazz and race in colonial India: The role of Anglo-Indian musicians in the diffusion of jazz in Calcutta” by Stéphane Dorin (Jazz research journal 4/2 [November 2010] 123–140; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2010-19314).
The Senegalese singer, songwriter, musician, and politician Youssou N’Dour was born just six months before Senegal achieved independence. His mother hailed from a long line of griots, or gawlo, who served as hereditary musicians and custodians of oral history in traditional Senegalese culture. In contrast, his father, who did not come from a griot background, discouraged him from pursuing a career in music. Nevertheless, at the age of 12, Youssou began performing at local events, including kassaks (circumcision ceremonies) and ngentes (baptisms). By 13, he had his first major public performance with the song M’Ba, marking the start of his professional singing career.
For a brief period, N’Dour attended the École des Arts but quickly lost interest in classical Western music education. In 1975, he joined Ibrahim Kassé’s Star Band, the house band at the popular nightclub Le Miami. After two years, he left the band along with several other members to form a new group, Étoile de Dakar, in 1977. In 1984, Youssou N’Dour was invited to perform in Paris alongside the Ghanaian-English band Osibisa on April 4th, celebrating Senegalese Independence Day before an audience of 12,000 at the Espace Bala. Among the attendees was British rock musician Peter Gabriel, who was so captivated by N’Dour’s voice that he later traveled to Dakar to meet him.
N’Dour performs Nelson Mandela on his 1987 tour with Peter Gabriel.
In 2012, N’Dour declared his candidacy for the Senegalese presidential elections. His song Fekke ma ci boole became an anthem for his political campaign. Although he was ultimately disqualified from the election due to alleged irregularities with his signatures, his candidacy played a crucial role in uniting the opposition. In addition to his political endeavors, N’Dour has received numerous honors for his musical and humanitarian work, being appointed as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in 1991 and a FAO Global Goodwill Ambassador in 2000. In a recent interview, N’Dour spoke of music’s power to bring people together. According to him, “When you’re a musician you speak a universal language that overcomes divisions and [can] bring people together, remind them of our common humanity and promote understanding and solidarity. Music is a melody and a word that can speak of love, friendship, peace, and subjects that concern us all, such as the environment and immigration – subjects that we all experience in our daily lives. Also, throughout my career, I’ve always been open to world cultures while putting an African stamp on them.”
Read the new entry on Youssou N’Dour in MGG Online.
The Mexican singer-songwriter Amparo Ochoa is considered one of the most remarkable and versatile performers of the Mexican canto nuevo movement (related to nueva canción). Born in Culiacán in 1946, Ochoa grew up singing at various school events and with her father. She later taught in rural grade schools in her home state where songs were an essential part of her teaching. Her deep connection with Mexican and Latin American audiences is often expressed through her innate charm. This sense of popularity is not only rooted in the political messages of the songs she performed but also in the influential platforms where she showcased her talent.
The widespread perception of her voice as representative of the people is rooted in the rich vocal traditions of early 20th century Mexican musical theater, which evolved throughout the century and were recontextualized during the Latin American Cold War. These vocal strategies, deeply impactful on listeners, shaped their understanding of el pueblo and fostered sympathy for movements opposing dictatorial regimes in the 1970s and 1980s. This interpretation of her voice foregrounds the role of music and song in the ideological and political frameworks of the time and expresses how the emotional resonance of her voice influenced listeners’ subjectivity.
Celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month by reading “La voz del pueblo y para el pueblo” Amparo Ochoa’s vocal trajectory: From the Mexican Revolution to the Latin American Cold War” by Natalia Bieletto Bueno (Journal of interdisciplinary voice studies 5/1 [2020] 9–28; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2020-72069).
Below is a video of Ochoa performing the song A que te tiras cuando sueñas mexicano on a Mexican television program.
Indonesian Balinese Muslim communities, or kampung, have developed distinctive performing arts nurtured through their social and cultural interactions with their Hindu rulers and neighbors. Each kampung has its unique history and ancestral roots but generally maintains special and interdependent connections with the regional Balinese nobility, centered around the royal palaces, or puri. The puri provides authentication, social recognition, and financial support to the kampung, while the kampung contribute through their skills, loyalty, and specific knowledge, including labor. These relationships have persisted for centuries, deeply influencing Muslim Balinese cultural practices, particularly their performing arts traditions.
A Balinese dance performance.
Muslim Balinese performing arts have long emphasized the historical, social, and cultural interplay between puri and kampung, with examples from eastern and southern Bali. The puri often offer performance opportunities for Muslim Balinese, allowing them to express their cultural identity and strengthen their community presence. In turn, the puri benefit from showcasing their power and history through these performances. Thus, the performing arts not only sustain these reciprocal relationships but also enhance social cohesion within the neighborhood and foster a unified local community.
This according to “Performing arts as a cultural bridge between Hindu rulers and Muslim communities in Bali” by Ako Mashino, Performing arts and the royal courts of Southeast Asia II: Pusaka as documented heritage, ed. by Mayco Santaella (Leiden: Brill, 2024, 45–68; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2024-3868).
The video below shows a royal wedding ceremony held at a Balinese puri.
With the assistance of the Cultural Foundation of the German Federal States, the State and University Library of Hamburg (SUB) has acquired 44 handwritten letters and postcards from Johannes Brahms to Friedrich Chrysander, 33 of which were previously unknown. The documents were in the possession of descendants of Chrysander, who was a pioneering musicologist and Handel researcher, and deal with, among other topics, the collaboration between him and Brahms on the complete edition of Handel’s works. The Brahms archive within the SUB is one of the four largest Brahms collections in the world.
In addition, the SUB acquired, again with support from the Cultural Foundation, a manuscript score with the choruses from Handel’s oratorio Messiah in a previously unknown German translation. The Messiah was premiered in English in Dublin in 1742; performances with German-language texts only took place in Germany from the 1770s onwards. These spectacular documents of music history were purchased at auctions in London, Handel’s long-time place of work, and have now been transported to Hamburg, the birthplace of Johannes Brahms.
The Belgian band Front 242 was formed in 1981 by programmers Patrick Codenys and Dirk Bergen. The lineup expanded a year later with the addition of Daniel Bressanutti (Daniel B. Prothese) and vocalist Jean-Luc De Meyer. Drawing initial inspiration from Kraftwerk and Throbbing Gristle, their music is known for its hard-hitting rhythms and pure electronic sounds, making it instantly danceable. This innovative approach led to the creation of a new musical genre: electronic body music (EBM). Front 242’s groundbreaking albums have significantly influenced a host of subsequent bands.
In 1982, Front 242 released their debut single and album, Geography. By 1984, with the release of the EP No Comment, the band’s sound took a harder edge, setting them apart from the burgeoning synthpop scene and establishing their distinctive sonic landscapes. By 1987, Front 242 had gained a record contract in the U.S. through Chicago’s Wax Trax! Records, which featured a diverse roster of mostly European aggressive synthesizer acts later lumped together under the term “industrial rock”. The U.S. market, at this point, appeared ready for Front 242’s brand of innovative electronic music. The following year, they released their third LP, Front by Front.
The band quickly attracted the attention of major labels and signed with Sony/Epic Records. Their single Tragedy for you received immediate promotion on MTV, but some fans of their earlier work did not take to their new major label sound. By 1991, Front 242, along with Ministry and Skinny Puppy, became key figures in a global industrial music movement. During this period, they released two albums that marked a significant departure from their earlier style, leading to a split with some longtime fans. In 1995, Jean-Luc De Meyer left the band to focus on his solo project, Cobalt 60, but Front 242 reunited the following year and embarked on a world tour. In describing advice he would give to other electronic musicians, Patrick Codenys says,
“Use your human abilities and your senses; think about what you want to achieve and construct before you are taken by the technology. Electronic music can be very mental, even conceptual. Each album needs a philosophy. Research how to program because it is also a big part of how you will use the creative tools like synths and production to serve your artistic ideas.”
This according to Das Gothic- und Dark Wave-Lexikon: Das Lexikon der schwarzen Szene (2003). Find it in RILM Music Encyclopedias.
Now in their fourth decade of existence, Front 242 are on their final tour performing in Mexico, the United States, and Europe beginning in March 2024 and ending in their hometown of Brussels, Belgium in January 2025. Below is their video for Tragedy for you, a song that some say signaled the end of the 1980s EBM era.
The library of the Institut du Monde Arabe (Arab World Institute) in Paris is home to an extensive collection of writings on music from the Arab world, a region stretching from the Atlas Mountains to the Indian Ocean. This series of blog posts highlights selections from this collection, along with abstracts written by RILM staff members contained in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, the comprehensive bibliography of writings about music and music-related subjects. From February to November 2024, the Institut du Monde Arabe is hosting the exhibition “Baghdad: A Journey Back to Madinat al-Salam, with Assassin’s Creed Mirage”, showcasing life and achievements in the cosmopolitan city during the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate. The library is also hosting an on-site exhibition of some of its book holdings covering the history of Abbasid Baghdad.
This craft [singing] is the last craft attained in civilization because it constitutes a luxury and has no occupational role except entertainment and leisure. It is also the first to disappear when a civilization disintegrates and declines.
و هذه الصناعة آخر ما يحصل في العمران من الصنائع لأنها كمالية في غير وظيفة من الوظائف إلا وظيفة الفراغ و الفرح. و هو أيضاً أول ما ينقطع من العمران عند اختلاله و تراجعه.
From Ibn H̱aldūn’s Muqaddimaẗ, chapter 32: On the craft of singing (Fī ṣināʻat al-gināʼ)
Writing in the 14th century, the historian Abū Zayd `Abd al-Raḥman Ibn H̱aldūn (1332–1406) observed musical life as a phenomenon associated with a phase of civilizational development and a sign of civilizational prosperity. Ibn H̱aldūn also observed the evolution of the art of singing in the Islamic caliphates and considered it to have reached perfection during the 8th and 9th centuries in Baghdad, the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate.
When the second Abbasid caliph, Abū Ğaʻfar al-Mansūr (reign 754–775), envisioned a new city to serve as the capital of the caliphate, he also led the creation of a center of economic prosperity, political power, and intellectual activity that attracted peoples from East and West. Scholars, seekers of knowledge, craftsmen, poets, and musicians flocked to its renowned schools and intellectual and literary circles. Intellectual patronage reached its zenith under Bayt al-ḥikmaẗ(The House of Wisdom), which was established by the caliphate al-Maʾmūn (reign 813–833) in the early 9th century as a center of translation and scientific inquiry. Writings in Greek, Sanskrit, Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Syriac, and others in all fields of knowledge were translated into Arabic.
With political patronage and social acceptance, musicians thrived and scholarly writings on music flourished. Musīqá (music), ġināʼ (singing or the craft of singing), and samāʻ (attentive spiritual listening) became subjects of philosophical discourse and theoretical speculation, topics in adab writings, and contentious issues among jurists, mystics, and religious scholars who discussed at length their permissibility from the perspective of Islamic law.
In the 9th century, a distinctive genre of writing emerged, influenced by Greek theories on music and other scholarly domains that had been translated into Arabic. These writings on music delved into the philosophies of music and music theory. The authors, often philosophers and polymaths, also drew on their practical experiences as instrumentalists, singers, or poets.
The earliest attempt to comment on Greek music theory in Arabic was undertaken by Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī (801?–866?), who served at the Abbasid court under the caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (reign 833–842). Influenced by the writings of Aristotle and his commentators, al-Kindī authored many epistles and introduced the first known, though brief, notation of music written in Arabic. Similarly, Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Fārābī (870?–950?) was commissioned by the vizier of the caliph al-Qāhir bi-Allāh (reign 932–934) to write his seminal work Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr (The grand book on music). Known as the “Second Teacher”, after Aristotle, al-Fārābī investigated Greek writings on music, adopting some elements and expanding on others. As an ʻūd player, he was able to supplement his writing with commentary on the musical practice of his era. To this day, his book remains one of the most comprehensive works on music theory in Arabic.
Above: A statue of al-Fārābī in central Baghdad, depicted holding a book in his left hand and resting his right hand on the neck of an ʻūd. Photo taken by the author in 2022.
By the 13th century, Ṣafī al-Dīn `Abd al-Mu’min ibn Yūsuf ibn Fāẖir al-Urmawī (1216?–94) continued this tradition of systematization in music theory. He wrote about the modal system that was used then and which was further expanded upon in subsequent centuries. Al-Urmawī also enjoyed the patronage of political courts. He served at the court of the last Abbasid caliph, al-Mustaʻṣim (reign 1242–58) and at the court of the Mongol ruler and invader of Baghdad, Hülegü (1217?–65), who was impressed by the musician’s performance.
The album Music of the Abbasid era: The legacy of Ṣafiy a-d-Dīn al-Urmawī (Paris: Maison des Cultures du Monde, 2005) features a musical interpretation of notations attributed to the 13th-century musician and music theorist.]
By the 13th century, Ṣafī al-Dīn `Abd al-Mu’min ibn Yūsuf ibn Fāẖir al-Urmawī (1216?–94) continued this tradition of systematization in music theory. He wrote about the modal system that was used then and which was further expanded upon in subsequent centuries. Al-Urmawī also enjoyed the patronage of political courts. He served at the court of the last Abbasid caliph, al-Mustaʻṣim (reign 1242–58) and at the court of the Mongol ruler and invader of Baghdad, Hülegü (1217?–65), who was impressed by the musician’s performance.
Above: An illustration of a conversation in medieval Baghdad as depicted by scholar of Medieval Arabic literature, Emily Selove, in her book Popeye and Curly: 120 days in Medieval Baghdad (Moorhead, M.I.: Theran Press, 2021). IMA library reference.
Other depictions and commentaries on musical life are found in writings in poetical, historical, bureaucratic, geographical, and jurisprudence literature, offering valuable insights into the state of music making and status of musicians. Jurists and religious scholars, for example, articulated concerns regarding the classification of sounds into music and non-music, emphasizing the effect of music on behavior and public morality. They debated the effects of listening on the self and its influence on individuals’ relationship to God. Mystics, on the other hand, explored the spiritual preparedness for listening to music and the role of samāʻ in transmitting spiritual knowledge.
Despite the loss of many manuscripts from the period, those that have survived continue to draw scholarly interest and provoke questions regarding the continuity of musical practice and knowledge. The enduring fascination with al-Iṣfahānī’s The book of songs continues to inspire extracts and abridged thematic books on various topics. Musicologists and orientalists have also edited and provided commentaries on medieval Arabic writings to explore the potential influences of these theoretical works on European music theory. These writings not only reflected the intellectual and cultural life of the era but also laid the foundations for musical practices and knowledge that have guided a long lineage of music research and performance in the Islamicate world and beyond.
Written and compiled by Farah Zahra, Associate Editor, RILM
Annotated bibliography
al-ʽAllāf, ʽAbd al-Karīm. قيان بغداد في العصر العباسي والعثماني والأخير (Women singers in Baghdad in the Abbasid and Ottoman periods and beyond) (Baġdād: Dār al-Bayān, 1969). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1969-17952; IMA catalogue reference]
Musical life in the golden period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–847) was marked by the activities of women slave singers who hailed from different backgrounds and ethnicities and underwent rigorous musical training. The biographies of and anecdotes about 43 women slave singers (qiyān) from that period highlight their role in the court and public life. The fall of Baghdad following the Mongol invasion in 1258 led to a decline in the musical life in the city, a downturn that persisted until the late 19th century, during which women singers became more active, especially in taverns and nightclubs. The first half of the 20th century witnessed a vibrant activity by women singers. Sixty-one women singers from that later period are profiled.
al-Bakrī, ʽᾹdil and Sālim Ḥusayn. قياسات النغم عند الفارابي من خلال كتاب الموسيقى الكبير (Intervals as understood by al-Fārābī in Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr [The grand book of music]) (Baġdād: Wizāraẗ al-Iʽlām, 1975). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1975-28792; IMA catalogue reference].
The chapter Iḥṣā’ al-naġam al- ṭabīʻiyyaẗ fī ālaẗ al-ʻūd from the book Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr (The grand book of music) presents al-Fārābī’s approach to intervals as applied to the ʻūd.
al-Fārābī, Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. La musique Arabe. Tome premier: Al-Fārābī–Grand traité de la musique: Kitābu l-musīqī al-kabīr–Livres I et II, trans. by Baron Rodolphe d’Erlanger (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1930). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1930-2273; IMA catalogue reference].
Presents a French translation of and commentary on al-Fārābī’s book Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr (The grand book of music).
al-Fārābī, Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. كتاب الموسيقي الكبير (Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr [The grand book of music]), ed. by Ġaṭṭās ʻAbd al-Malik H̱ašabaẗ and Maḥmūd Aḥmad al-Ḥifnī (al-Qāhiraẗ: Dār al-Kitāb al-ʻArabī, n.d.). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1967-32301; IMA catalogue reference].
According to al-Fārābī, music is best approached through two branches: the science of theoretical music and the science of practical music. Drawing on Aristotelian logic, issues related to the philosophy of music, such as the first principles of music theory and musical experience, the origin of music and instruments, and the effects of music on the self, among others, are discussed. Aspects of music theory and practice, such as types of intervals, scale systems, elements of rhythm, description and construction of musical instruments, composition, and the types and effects of melodies are analyzed.
al-Fārābī, Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad and Abū ʻAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʻAbd Allāh Ibn Sīnā. La musique Arabe. Tome deuxième: Al-Fārābī–Livre III du kitābu l-musīqī al-kabīr; Avicenne: Kitābu š-šifāʾ(mathématiques, chap. XII), trans. by Baron Rodolphe d’Erlanger (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1935). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1935-2863; IMA catalogue reference]
Presents a French translation of and commentary on al-Fārābī’s book Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr (The grand book of music) and Ibn Sīnā’s book Kitāb al-šifāʾ (The book of healing).
Farmer, Henry George. تاريخ الموسيقى العربية حتى القرن الثالث عشر الميلادي (A history of Arabian music to the 13th century), trans. by Ğurğis Fatḥ Allāh (Bayrūt: Manšūrāt Dār Maktabaẗ al-Ḥayāẗ, 1980). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1980-21512; IMA catalogue reference]
Musical life in pre-Islamic Arabia (1st–6th century), the early Islamic period (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–847), and the periods of decline (847–945) and fall (945–1258) provided a window into the social and cultural contexts of those periods. Political events and the opinion of Islamic jurisprudence scholars on music making and listening shaped the musical life and writings on music of each period. The biographies of famous musicians, singers, instrumentalists, theorists, scientists, and literary scholars are included.
al-Ḥifnī, Maḥmūd Aḥmad. الموسيقى العربية وأعلامها من الجاهلية إلى الأندلس (Arabic music and its masters from pre-Islamic Arabia to al-Andalus) (al-Qāhiraẗ: Maṭbaʻaẗ Aḥmad ʻAlī Muḥaymar, 1951).[RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1951-7427; IMA catalogue reference]
Music making flourished under the civilizational conditions brought by Islam and through the cross-cultural influence of peoples across the Muslim world in the Middle Ages. The biographies and stories about master musicians from the early Islamic period (610–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), and al-Andalus (711–1492) reflect aspects of the cultural and musical life of the periods.
Ibn H̱urdāḏubaẗ, ʽUbayd Allāh ibn ʽAbd Allāh. مختار من كتاب اللهو والملاهي (Selections from the book Kitāb al-lahū wa-al-malāhī [The book on entertainment and instruments]), ed. by Aġnāṭiyūs ʽAbduh H̱alīfaẗ (2nd ed., rev. and enl.; Bayrūt: Dār al-Mašriq, 1969). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1969-18160; IMA catalogue reference]
The permissibility of singing, music making, and the effect of music and singing on the self was a subject of debate and controversy among Muslim religious scholars. Short biographies and stories about select singers, musicians, and women slave singers (qiyān and ğawārī) from the early Islamic era (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the early period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–847) reflect aspects of the musical and cultural life of the periods. Analysis of singing, samāʻ, poetic meters, and rhythmic cycles reveals their rules and aesthetics.
Ibn al-Qaysarānī, Muḥammad ibn Ṭāhir. كتاب السماع (The book of samāʻ), ed. by Abū al-Wafā al-Marāġī (al-Qāhiraẗ: Lağnaẗ Iḥyāʼ al-Turāṯ al-Islāmī, 1994). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1994-35747; IMA catalogue reference]
Prophet Muḥammad’s sayings, stories from the lives of prophets and their companions, and statements by religious scholars provide evidence for the permissibility of singing, listening to music, and samāʻ, thus refuting the arguments of those who opposed permissibility. These opinions are categorized based on different types of samāʻ, including singing, and listening to string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments.
Ibn al-Munaǧǧim, Yaḥyá ibn ʻAlī. رسالة يحيى بن المنجم في الموسيقى (The epistle on music of Yaḥyá ibn ʻAlī ibn al-Munaǧǧim), ed. by Zakariyyā Yūsuf (al-Qāhiraẗ: Dār al-Qalam, 1964). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1964-11109; IMA catalogue reference]
The theory on tones, their types, and intervals as discussed by court musician and music theorist Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī (767–850) provides materials for comparison with ancient Greek philosophers’ theories on the same topics. Al-Mawṣilī’s view on the application of frets on the ʻūd and scales is also a rich addition to music theory. Arabic singing and the construction of melodies reflect the aesthetics and the musical culture of that period.
Iḫwān al-Ṣafā’. رسائل إخوان الصفاء وخلان الوفاء: القسم الرياضي (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity. I: Mathematics) (Bayrūt: Dār Ṣādir, n.d.). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2008-53176; IMA catalogue reference]
Includes the Risālaẗ fī al-mūsīqá (Epistle on music), the fifth epistle of 14 from the first volume on mathematics by Iẖwān al-Ṣafāʼ.
al-Iṣbahānī, Abū al-Faraǧ ʻAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn. أغاني الأغاني: مختصر أغاني الأصفهاني (The songs of songs: An abridged version of Abū al-Faraǧ al-Iṣbahānī’s Kitab al-aġānī [The book of songs]), ed. by Yūsuf ʿAwn and ʿAbd Allāh Al-ʿAlāylī (Dimašq: Dār Ṭalās, n.d., 3 vols.). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2008-53176; IMA catalogue reference]
Presents an abridged version of al-Iṣbahānī’s Kitāb al-aġānī (The book of songs).
al-Iṣbahānī, Abū al-Faraǧ ʻAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn. كتاب الأغاني (The book of songs), ed. by ʻAbd al-Sattār Aḥmad Farrāğ (4th ed.; Bayrūt: Dār al-Ṯaqāfaẗ, 1978, 25 vols.). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1978-23410; IMA catalogue reference]
The transcription and compilation of songs of the courts of the Abbasid caliphs up to Aḥmad al-Muʻtaḍid bi-Allāh (857–902), the courts of the Umayyad caliphs (661–750), and songs from the early Islamic period (610–661), and pre-Islamic Arabia are a way to document the literary, cultural, and political life of those periods. The songs’ texts are accompanied by information about poets, singers, and composers, and analysis and critical commentary of poetic meter, rhythmic cycles, and performance styles. Popular stories and chronicles about caliphs, viziers, rulers, and various people, along with narrations of lineage and tribes supplement the context of the songs. Biographies and chronicles of musicians, poets, singers, and slave women singers served as a rich reference for the entertainment, musical, and literary life during the first three centuries of the medieval Muslim world.
al-Kindī, Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq. رسالة الكندي في خبر صناعة التأليف (The epistle of al-Kindī Risālaẗ fī ẖabar ṣināʽaẗ al-taʼlīf [The epistle on the craft of composition]), ed. by Yūsuf Šawqī (al-Qāhiraẗ: Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyyaẗ, 1996). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1996-42433; IMA catalogue reference]
Intervals, tuning, scales, octaves, tetrachords, types of tonal structures and construction of modes, modulation and transition, and the relationship between rhythmic cycles, poetic meter, and music are analyzed.
al-Kindī, Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq. مؤلفات الكندي الموسيقية (The musical writings of al-Kindī), ed. by Zakariyyā Yūsuf (Baġdād: Maṭbaʽaẗ Šafīq, 1962). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1962-9228; IMA catalogue reference]
Introduces editions of five epistles on music written by al-Kindī: Risālaẗ fī ẖabar ṣināʻat al-taʼlīf, Kitāb al-muṣawwitāt al-watariyyaẗ min ḏāt al-watar al-waḥīd ʻilá ḏāt al-ʻašarat awtār, Risālaẗ fī ağzāʼ ẖabariyyaẗ fī al-mūsīqá, Muẖtaṣar al-mūsīqá fī taʼlīf al-naġam wa-sunʻaẗ al-ʻūd, and al-Risālaẗ al-kubraẗ fī al-taʼlīf.
al-Nağmī, Kamāl. يوميات المغنين والجواري: حكايات من الأغاني (Chronicles of singers and women slave singers: Stories from Kitāb al-aġānī [The book of songs] of Abū al-Farağ al-Isbahānī) (al-Qāhiraẗ: Dār al-Hilāl, 1986). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1986-30654; IMA catalogue reference]
A selection of 27 stories from Kitāb al-aġānī (The book of songs) about the lives of women and men musicians and singers.
Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī. رسالة نصير الدين الطوسي في علم الموسيقى (The epistle of Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī on music theory), ed. by Zakariyyā Yūsuf (al-Qāhiraẗ: Dār al-Qalam, 1962). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1964-11108; IMA catalogue reference]
Music should be studied as two branches: the science of composition (taʼlīf) and the science of rhythm (īqāʻ). Intervals and their types, and what makes plausible intervals and tones, are important topics in music theory.
Nielson, Lisa. Music and musicians in the medieval Islamicate world: A social history (London: I.B. Tauris, 2021). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-96979; IMA catalogue reference]
During the early medieval Islamicate period (800–1400), discourses concerned with music and musicians were wide-ranging and contentious, and were expressed in works on music theory and philosophy as well as literature and poetry. In spite of attempts by influential scholars and political leaders to limit or control musical expression, music and sound permeated all layers of the social structure. A social history of music, musicianship, and the role of musicians in the early Islamicate era is presented. Focusing primarily on Damascus, Baghdad, and Jerusalem, it draws on a wide variety of textual sources–including chronicles, literary sources, memoirs, and musical treatises–written for and about musicians and their professional and private environments. The status of slavery, gender, social class, and religion intersected with music in courtly life and reflected the dynamics of medieval Islamicate courts. [Adapted from the book synopsis]
Saʿīd, H̱ayr Allāh. مغنيات بغداد في عصر الرشيد وأولاده من “كتاب الأغاني” و غيره (Women singers in Baghdad during the reign of the caliph Hārūn al-Rašīd and his sons as depicted in Kitāb al-aġānī [The book of songs] and other books) (Dimašq: Wizāraẗ al-Ṯaqāfaẗ wa-al-Iršād al-Qawmī, 1991). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1991-37910; IMA catalogue reference]
Musical life in the first period of the Abbasid Caliphate was vibrant. During this period, singing and music making became a profession. Under the rule of Hārūn al-Rašīd and his sons (8th–9th century), some women slaves, known as the qiyān, were acquired, trained, and encouraged to be professional singers at the palace. The music scene of the qiyān musical activity was not limited to the Abbasid court as they also performed at taverns and homes of elite circles in Baghdad. Stories about the qiyān narrated by various scholars reflect the social norms in Abbasid Baghdad and attest to the qiyān’s mastery of poetry, wit, and talent. The biographies of five qiyān are included.
Saʿīd, H̱ayr Allāh. “مجتمع بغداد الغنائي في العصر العباسي” (Musical life in Abbasid Baghdad), al-Mawqif al-adabī 264 (Nīsān 1993) 59–67. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1993-31671; IMA catalog reference]
Musical life in Abbasid Baghdad flourished both in the political court and the city. Singers and musicians lived under the patronage of caliphs and were organized into ranks. Notable musicians of that era included Isḥāq al-Mawsilī, Ibrahīm al-Mawsilī, Manṣūr Zalzal al-Ḍārib, and Ibn Ǧāmiʻ. This period also saw the development of elaborate performance styles and etiquette. The residents of Baghdad also engaged in music and singing on various occasions, with performances occurring in taverns and in domestic and public spaces throughout the city.
Shehadi, Fadlou. Philosophies of music in medieval Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1995). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1995-9473; IMA catalogue reference]
The philosophies of music and music theory in the medieval Muslim world were formulated in works by al-Kindī, al-Fārābī, Iẖwān al-Ṣafāʼ, Ibn Sīnā, al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn `Alī al-Kātib, and Ibn ʻArabī. In the same period, various perspectives on the permissibility of music making, listening, and samāʻ were advanced by Muslim religious scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyaẗ, al-Ġazālī, Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, and Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Ġazālī.
Šihāb, Ġādaẗ Anwar. موسوعة الموسيقى والغناء في العصر العباسي مع أشهر الموسقيين والمؤلفين والمغنين والمغنيات (Encyclopedia of music, singing, composers, musicians and men and women singers in the Abbasid period) (Bayrūt: al-Dār al-ʽArabiyyaẗ li-l-Mawsūʽāt, 2012). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2012-50363; IMA catalogue reference]
During the rule of the Abbasids in Baghdad, music making was significantly influenced by the Abbasid caliphs’ positive attitudes towards music. Their encouragement and financial support for musicians and singers led to the specialization of musical arts and the emergence of a musician class within the Abbasid palace and society. The popular music and singing genres of the time were performed in various contexts, from the palace to private homes and taverns. Slave markets played a pivotal role as sources of women slave singers, who underwent rigorous training to master singing or instrument playing. These women gained empowerment as a social class, influencing the social and political life of the caliphate. The period was also marked by the evolution of musical instruments, with significant refinements in the making and performance of wind, percussion, and string instruments. Biographies and chronicles of women and men musicians and singers highlight their contributions and the social life of the time. The genres of poetry and their forms were closely linked to rhythmic cycles, with Persian poetry notably influencing Arabic poetry. Muslim scholars and jurists contributed to the discourse on the permissibility of singing and music within samāʻ. The practice of samāʻ by the Sufis played a crucial role in the spiritual life of the community, leaving a lasting impact on the consolidation of Sufi samāʻ forms that influenced centuries of practice across the Muslim world.
Sawa, George Dimitri. Music performance practice in the early ʿAbbāsid era 132–320 AH/750–932 AD (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1989). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1989-35195; IMA catalogue reference]
Two medieval writers with access to extant repertoire and practices, and to written and oral information on music literature and theory, critically and thoroughly covered the subject of music making and music theory in the medieval Middle East. Al-Fārābī (872?–950?), a performer and theorist, systematized musical practices according to Greek models in Kitāb al-mūsīqá al-kabīr (The grand book of music), and the recently discovered Kitāb iḥşā’ al-īqāʿāt (The book for the basic comprehension of rhythms). The historian, poet, and storyteller al-Iṣbahānī (897–967) compiled anecdotes on musical practices in Kitāb al-aġānī (The book of songs). Analysis of specific performances reveals the physical, verbal, and social behaviour of both musicians and audience; the textual and modal relationship between songs; and the textual, musical, and extra-musical criteria for performance excellence. (synopsis by the author)
al-Urmawī, Ṣafī al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Muʼmin ibn Yūsuf ibn Fāẖir. La musique Arabe. Tome troisième: Ṣafiyu-d-Dīn al-Urmawī–I. Aš-šarafiyyah ou épître à šarafu-d-dīn. II. Kitāb al-adwār ou livre des cycles musicaux, ed. by Christian Poché and trans. by Baron Rodolphe d’Erlanger (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1938). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1938-2680; IMA catalogue reference]
Presents a French translation of and commentary on Ṣafī al-Dīn al-Urmawī’s epistle on music al-Risālaẗ al-šarafiyyaẗ fī al-nisab al-taʼlīfiyyaẗ (The epistle on musical proportions) and his book Kitāb al-adwār (The book of cycles).
al-Urmawī, Ṣafī al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Mu’min ibn Yūsuf ibn Fāẖir. كتاب الأدوار في الموسيقى (Kitāb al-adwār fī al-mūsīqá {The book of cycles]), ed. by Ġaṭṭās ʻAbd al-Malik H̱ašabaẗ (al-Qāhiraẗ: al-Hayʼaẗ al-Maṣriyyaẗ al-ʽĀmmaẗ li-l-Kitāb, 1986). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1986-30625; IMA catalogue reference]
Topics of music theory analyzed include: the explanation of tones and their types, the division of frets, the relationship of intervals, the causes of dissonance and consonant combinations, the relationships between cycles, the arrangement of two strings, accompaniment and performance of modes on the ‘ūd, the most common modes, the similarities between notes, transposed cycles, scordatura, rhythmic cycles, and the effects of the modes.
Yūsuf, Zakariyyā. “موسيقى الكندي: ملحق لكتاب “مؤلفات الكندي الموسيقية (Music of al-Kindī: An annotation to the book Muʼallafāt al-Kindī al-mūsīqiyyaẗ [al-Kindī’s writings on music]) (Baġdād: Maṭbaʽaẗ Šafīq, 1962). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1962-9227; IMA catalogue reference]
Al-Kindī’s nine epistles in music approached music from five perspectives: sonic and structural, temporal and rhythmic, psychological, medical, and astronomical. It is an appendix to the book Muʼallafāt al-Kindī al-mūsīqiyyaẗ (al-Kindī’s writings on music) on al-Kindī’s theoretical writings, abstracted as RILM 1962-9315.
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The tenor saxophonist Lester “Prez” Young grew up in the New Orleans area, where his father led a family band that toured the country with tent shows. Young initially played violin, trumpet, drums, and alto saxophone in the band before switching to tenor saxophone in the late 1920s. He began his professional career in the Midwest, performing with bands such as Walter Page’s Blue Devils in 1930 and Bennie Moten‘s band in 1933, which also featured the young pianist, Bill Basie. In 1934, Young briefly joined the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra as a replacement for the renowned saxophonist Coleman Hawkins. However, his distinctive tone was not well received by the other musicians, leading him to leave the band after a few months and return to Kansas City. There, he played with Andy Kirk and made his first recordings in 1936 with a small group around Count Basie. Young continued to be associated with Basie’s band, with occasional breaks, until 1944.
Cover art for Lester Young Trio album.
Young’s solos on Shoeshine boy and Lady be good quickly became classics, influencing many fellow instrumentalists. In the late 1930s, he also collaborated on numerous studio recordings with singer Billie Holiday. In 1944, Young was drafted into the army, where he was court-martialed for drug possession and served several months in prison. After his discharge, he was signed in 1946 by impresario Norman Granz, who featured him prominently on his Jazz at the Philharmonic tours. During this period, Young led his own bands, typically composed of younger musicians influenced by bebop, and recorded extensively, including notable sessions with pianist Teddy Wilson.
Unfortunately, alcohol and depression, worsened by his military experiences, led to frequent hospitalizations starting in 1955. In January 1959, Young accepted a gig at the Blue Note Club in Paris but returned to New York soon after due to health issues. He died in New York, ultimately succumbing to the effects of alcoholism.
Cover art for album with the Oscar Peterson Trio.
Lester Young significantly influenced cool jazz saxophonists such as Stan Getz, Zoot Sims, and Al Cohn, who drew inspiration from his introspective vocal style and improvisations grounded in motivic details. Even bebop musicians like Charlie Parker were notably influenced by Young’s melodic lines, particularly during the early stages of his career. In one of his recording sessions, Young said, “I don’t like a whole lot of noise . . . trumpets and trombones. I’m looking for something soft. It’s got to be sweetness, man, you dig?”
Find the entry on Lester Young in MGG Online. The photo at the beginning of the post is of Lester Young at the Famous Door in New York City, September 1946.
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