Category Archives: Instruments

by rilm | May 14, 2026 · 6:00 am

The Iraqi maqām: An Intangible Cultural Heritage at risk

The instrumental ensemble of the Iraqi Maqam, *al-chālghī*, as depicted on a 2002 national stamp.

This post inaugurates a series that will feature annotated bibliographies on performing arts inscribed in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. To promote open knowledge and preserve these traditions through scholarly writings, a monthly post will be curated for Bibliolore over the course of the year.

The Iraqi maqām (المقام العراقي) is the art music of Iraq, historically performed in the country’s urban centers, namely Baghdad, Kirkuk, and Mosul. For centuries, it has been transmitted orally from master musicians to apprentices. The core of the genre is a vocal performance in which a singer delivers classical or colloquial poetry, accompanied by a small ensemble known as the chālġī. This ensemble typically consists of the sanṭūr (a hammered dulcimer), the ǧūzaẗ (a spiked fiddle), and the ṭablaẗ (a goblet drum). In a masterful display of improvisation, the instrumentalists engage in call and response with the singer, supporting the embellished melodic mode and poetry. The canonical repertoire comprises approximately 54 modes, each with a distinct emotional and melodic character. It is said that mastering the entire system requires a lifetime of study, and today, only a few living masters have the entire repertoire memorized.

In 2008, UNESCO recognized the Iraqi maqām by inscribing it on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. With documented history stretching back centuries to the Abbasid era in Baghdad, the genre stands today at a critical crossroads, challenged by shrinking performance spaces and a declining number of master practitioners. Despite this vulnerable status, musicians and scholars are actively engaged in preserving the Iraqi maqām’s legacy through dedicated research and documentation. Their writings aim to preserve the genre’s status in collective memory. A selection of key scholarly contributions to this effort is presented below.

Listen to Iraqi Maqâm: Baghdad tradition–A tribute to Yusuf Omar (Inedit: Maison des Cultures du Monde) https://open.spotify.com/album/1ZQTW88EhMv9CgbFkMjrtD

The Iraqi musician Hamid al-Saadi performs with Safaafir in 2023. Photo courtesy of the Bloomington Early Music Festival

Annotated bibliography

al-Aʿẓamī, Ḥusayn Ismāʿīl. المقام العراقي بين طريقتين: دراسة موسيقية لفترة الصراع خلال القرن العشرين [The two styles of the Iraqi maqām in the 20th century: An analytical study] (Bayrūt: al-Mu’assasaẗ al-ʿArabiyyaẗ li-l-Dirāsāt wa-al-Našr, 2011). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2011-51858]

Presents a comparative analysis of the two main styles of the Iraqi maqām: the traditional performance style named after the reciter (qāri’) Rašīd al-Qundarchī (1886–1945), and the modernized style named after the reciter Muḥammad al-Qubbanchī (1904–89). Aesthetic principles and recitation style characterize each school. A comparison of various reciters’ styles highlighted these differences, and anecdotes about the reception and appreciation of the musical tradition by amateurs and the broader public attest to its popularity in the 20th century.

al-ʿĀmirī, Ṯāmir ʿAbd al-Ḥasan. محمد القبانجي: مطرب العراق الأول [Muḥammad al-Qubbanchī: Iraq’s master singer] (Baġdād: Dār al-Šu’ūn al-Ṯaqāfiiyyaẗ al-ʿĀmmaẗ Āfāq ʿArabiyyaẗ, 1987). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 1987-32379-32379]

The life of Iraqi maqām master singer Muḥammad al-Qubbanchī (1904–89) testifies to his immense contribution to the musical genre and to the country’s musical life in the 20th century. Analysis of key recordings illustrates his many innovations to the Iraqi maqām.

The Iraqi singer Farida Mohammad Ali performs in the Netherlands in 2017. Photo courtesy of Le Guess Who? Festival.

al-Bayātī, Muwaffaq. القطع والأصال في المقام العراقي: دراسة تحليلية [Melodic pieces and melodic connectors used in the Iraqi maqām: An analytical study] (Baġdād: Matbaʿat Bāsim, 2009). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2009-55313]

The performance of the Iraqi maqām relies on singers’ knowledge and mastery of classical and colloquial poetry, as well as the order of the melodies that constitute the repertoire. Modally, each Iraqi maqām is composed of a series of interconnected melodic pieces, known as quṭaʿ, and melodic connectors, known as awṣāl. Thirty-seven of these melodies are analyzed.

al-Ḥanafī, Ğalāl. المغنون البغداديون والمقام العراقي [Baghdadi singers and the Iraqi maqām] (Baġdād: Wizāraẗ al-Iršād al-ʿIrāqiyyaẗ, 1964). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 1964-10286]

The melodies of the Iraqi maqām permeate every aspect of life in Baghdad. Such melodies are regularly recited in the mawlid ceremonies (celebrations of the Prophet Muḥammad’s birthday), ḏikr circles (God’s remembrance), and tamǧīd (religious praise). They are also performed in secular cycles accompanied by the chālġī ensemble. Names and biographies of Iraqi maqām reciters and musicians are included.

Hassan, Scheherazade Qasim. “Le maqām irakien: Structures et réalisations” [The Iraqi maqām: Structures and realizations], L’improvisation dans les musiques de tradition orale, ed.by Bernard Lortat-Jacob. Ethnomusicologie (Paris: Société d’Études Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France (SELAF); 1989) 143–149. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 1989-1012].

Analyses of the Iraqi maqām reveal a melodic conception unique to Iraqi vocal art music. A maqām is identified by fixed elements and the obligatory placement of certain parts within their respective time frames. Three musical elements, taḥrīr (vocal introduction), quṭaʿ (melodic pieces), and taslīm (final vocal cadence), are indispensable in establishing the identity of an individual maqām.

Hassan, Scheherazade Qasim. “A space of inclusiveness: The case of the art music of Iraq”, International journal of contemporary Iraqi studies 2:1 (2008) 115–128. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2008-53697].

The traditional art music of Iraq, the Iraqi maqām, which is part of other core Islamic maqām traditions, has historically been designed to fulfill two purposes: a supranational frame and a diversity of local content. Both of these underscore the idea of bringing together multi-ethnic and multi-social differences, articulating them on a common ground of musical content, social contexts, and performers. By bringing together the study of the social and the musical, the issue of Iraqi identity as expressed in this musical tradition is addressed. The Iraqi maqām is a strong cultural marker, as it represents the forms of relations between ethnic and social groups in the country. The interaction appears in sacred and religious ceremonies, secular meetings, and all social gatherings, as well as in transmitted moral and aesthetic values. (abstract by the author)

Hassan, Scheherazade Qasim. “Between formal structure and performance practice: On the Baghdadi secular cycles”, Theory and practice in the music of the Islamic world: Essays in honour of Owen Wright, ed.by Rachel A. Harris and Martin Stokes. SOAS musicology (Aldershot: Ashgate; 2017) 273–292. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2017-48378].

The comparative study of the suite forms of the Islamic Middle East reveals entanglements, connections, common features, and interactions that cut across borders. Those of present-day Iraq, and particularly the Iraqi maqām, deserve special attention, not only as the distant ancestors of those developed in the Baghdad caliphate, but also because they have taken shape in a border zone where the Arab, Persian, and Turkish musical worlds overlap. The ordering of maqām within the cycles—significantly different from the Turkish fasıl and the Arabic waṣlaẗ—constitutes a significant puzzle, even more so since later 20th-century performers started to assert their prerogative to pick and choose. Yet the underlying principle, one of singing improvised music, moving from mode to mode, and incorporating composed items along the way, has been remarkably resilient. (abstract by Martin Stokes)

al-Saʿdī, Ḥāmid. المقام وبحور الأنغام: دراسة تحليلية لغناء المقامات العراقية مع نصوصها الشعرية [The maqām and the oceans of melodies: An analytical study of the singing of the Iraqi maqām and its poetry] (Baġdād: author, 2006). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2006-55181]

The Iraqi maqām is the traditional genre performed in Iraq’s urban centers. An analysis of the structure, performance style, and poetic content of each individual maqām shows the melodic complexity and poetic richness of the musical genre. Anecdotes about master musicians and from the author’s life attest to the vibrant musical life of the Iraqi maqām in Baghdad in the 20th century.

Maqam ensemble at Alwiyah Club in Baghdad in 2010. Photo courtesy of the Iraqi maqam blog.

Simms, Rob. The repertoire of Iraqi maqam (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2004). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2004-4076]

The art music of Iraq, known as Iraqi maqām, features poetry in classical Arabic and in the vernacular Iraqi dialect, sung by a virtuoso soloist and accompanied by a small instrumental ensemble. It is a remarkably cosmopolitan art, sharing many features with neighboring art music traditions, particularly with Iranian music. Its repertoire consists of orally transmitted, multi-sectioned compositions, performed with some flexibility regarding ornamentation, arrangement, and development. Focusing on the period between 1930 and 1980, this reference offers a comprehensive overview of the repertoire’s musical content through tables and musical transcriptions of scalar structures, melodies, and overall forms. Information from prominent Iraqi sources is consolidated, and a selection of recordings by master musicians, including Rašīd al-Qundarchī and Yūsuf ʿUmar, is presented. An introductory section provides a brief overview of pan-Middle Eastern modal theory along with an outline of the terminology, theory, and practices specific to the Iraqi maqām. The main section of the work is a catalog of 40 maqāms that constitute the central core of the contemporary repertoire.

al-Mašhadānī, ʿAbd Allāh Ibrāhīm. موسوعة المقام العراقي [The encyclopedia of the Iraqi maqām] (Baġdād: Matbaʿat Bāsim, 2009). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature RILM 2012-52890]

Although the Iraqi maqām represents a continuation of performance traditions originating in Abbasid Baghdad, the 20th century was the period in which the genre evolved into the form recognized today. Traditional venues like cafés and domestic spaces gave way to new listening experiences facilitated by audio technology such as radio and commercial recordings. Simultaneously, new educational institutions, often supported by the government, began to formalize its instruction in the 1960s. Today, the standard Iraqi maqām repertoire comprises approximately 54 distinct pieces, each analyzed and categorized by its unique melodic and rhythmic structures.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, Performers, Resources, World music

Tagged as Abbasid Caliphate, Arab world, Instruments, Iraq, Iraqi maqām, Maqām, oral traditions, RILM annotated bibliographies

by Michael Lupo | April 2, 2026 · 6:00 am

Covering the cultural heritage of Finland in RILM

International Peace Gardens in Jordan Park, Salt Lake City, Utah

Situated about three miles away from the Hilton Salt Lake City Center, site of the 2026 annual meeting of the Music Library Association attended by RILM staff, Jordan Park contains a heritage setting that is uniquely global in character: the International Peace Gardens. The grounds feature 26 country-themed sections, each reflecting a nation’s culture and landscape, that are designed to foster peace and friendship.

The locale’s spirit of international cooperation recalls the global initiatives of UNESCO that inspired the organizational structure of RILM 60 years ago. It is rooted in the conviction that authoritative and incisive knowledge on human creativity can only be attained collectively, by embracing a multitude of perspectives. Today, as RILM continues to collect and amplify every voice in music research as a UNESCO-accredited NGO, the Peace Gardens remind us of the importance of embracing a global sensibility towards interdisciplinary research.

With the approach of Voicing Innocence (7-8 April 2026)—a conference that accompanies the performance of Kaija Saariaho’s opera Innocence at the Metropolitan Opera in New York from several different fields of inquiry—the picturesque area of the park designated to represent Finland (Saariaho’s homeland and that of many of the speakers and illustrious guests) seems particularly prescient and appropriate. It immediately calls to mind the surfeit of writings on Finland’s lands, history, music and instruments, musicians and artists, and so much more that RILM has documented across all of its resources over the last six decades.

Below is a sample of this collecting effort of just some of the holdings dedicated to, and to some extent produced by, Finland. We hope that it serves as an entry point into research on the country’s artistic production and appreciation for its incredibly rich cultural heritage.

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Those interested in research surrounding Finland will encounter a plethora of writings in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature. The country itself is indexed in 8126 records (1493 available in full text). Over 2200 of these writings are in the Finnish language, and writings on Finland exist in 47 languages, attesting to the global musicological interest in the country. These publications reveal a broad and well-developed field that spans historical research, contemporary analysis, and documentation of musical life. Much of the focus lies in music history and musical life, alongside strong contributions from musicology and ethnomusicology, reflecting an interest in both institutional and lived musical practices. Scholarship covers a wide range of genres, including traditional music, popular music, jazz, and religious music, while also addressing pedagogy, performance practice, and musical instruments. These studies are often supported by extensive documentation such as discographies, catalogues, and bibliographies, underscoring a commitment not only to analysis but also to preservation and reference. Geographically and culturally, the material highlights both regional diversity and cultural specificity within Finland. Major urban centers such as Helsinki, Turku, and Tampere emerge as key hubs of musical activity and scholarship, while smaller localities like Kaustinen are especially prominent in the context of folk traditions and festivals. At the same time, research engages with Finland’s multilingual and multicultural fabric, particularly Finnish-Swedish, Sámi, and other minority communities, as well as immigrant groups. Overall, writings on music in Finland situate musical practices within broader cultural, social, and political frameworks, reflecting how music intersects with identity, regional heritage, and cultural policy.

Additional writings are concerned with “Finnish music outside Finland”, highlighting a diaspora-oriented perspective, where references are relatively sparse and spread across a small number of countries. Mentions appear in contexts such as Canada, Estonia, France, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S., along with broader regional references such as North America. Finnish music outside its country of origin is studied primarily in terms of diaspora presence and reception rather than in large volume, with modest attention distributed across neighboring Nordic and Baltic countries as well as select global contexts.

Content related to Finland in the RILM Index to Scores and Collected Editions reflects the country’s outsized contributions to the production and development of Western art music. Finland appears in 203 indexed records, encompassing detailed bibliographic information for 94 full scores, 58 parts, and 27 works for solo instrument or voice, alongside 45 records in Finnish and 20 associated with the historic Finnish publisher Fazer. The scope of available material is further demonstrated by major editorial projects such as Documenta musicae Fennicae, a 20-volume series presenting works by Finnish composers from the 18th and 19th centuries, and the 27-volume edition of Jean Sibelius’s complete works, underscoring both the depth of archival resources and the international significance of Finnish musical output.

Oxford anthology of Western music. III, ed. Robert Rau Holzer and David J. Rothenberg (New York: Oxford University Press) 591–597 [RILM Index to Scores and Collected Editions, 2013-44897]

The RILM Archive of Popular Music Magazines mentions Finland 383 times across 18 different zines, attesting to international interest. Discourse on Finnish pop often centers on heavy metal and its stylistic offshoots. Finnish groups like Amorphis (blending death metal with local folk influences), Sentenced, and Stratovarius established a style characterized by melodic, atmospheric, and sometimes melancholic metal. By the 1990s, Finland’s reputation as an incubator for metal became solidified with the global success of groups like Nightwish, Children of Bodom, HIM, and Apocalyptica, partially defining subgenres like symphonic metal and melodic death metal.

“Finnish Line: Pagan Prog Rockers AMORPHIS defy death” by Michael Moynihan in Seconds no. 29, 1994

Finland has also produced a rich punk scene documented by several non-Finnish zines. Embracing the subversive potential of the music (and the zines themselves), writings from the 1980s sometimes situated music criticism and review within the context of the Soviet presence. Given its geographic proximity, history of conflict (e.g., the Winter and Continuation wars), perceived enforced capitulations surrounding so-called Finlandization policies, and Cold War threats, the Soviet Union as a reference point is rather unsurprising. Articles in zines offer a unique window into the agency and activities of subcultures eager to deploy text, image, and music, some as a response to perceived misunderstandings from outsiders about the Finnish situation, particularly in the country’s major cities.

Content related to Finland in the RILM Music Encyclopedias underscores the country’s rich and multifaceted musical heritage as represented across a wide range of reference works. The collection includes information on 464 Finnish musicians, 74 Finland-related topics, and 21 instruments associated with the country, alongside full encyclopedia entries dedicated to Finland in several major sources. Notable among these are Timo Leisiö’s entry in The concise Garland encyclopedia of world music, which situates Finnish music within its geopolitical, linguistic, and cultural contexts while also addressing traditional music, instruments, and developments such as jazz, and the collaborative article by Liv Greni, Miep Zijlstra, Dilkka Kolehmainen, and Rina Barbier in the Algemene muziek encyclopedie, which traces Finland’s musical history from liturgical and secular traditions through to postwar developments, including education, ballet, and key genres.

Earlier and complementary perspectives are provided by the Finland entry in Hugo Riemann’s Musik-Lexikon, which documents sacred, secular, and traditional music in a historical framework from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Together, these sources are further enriched by specialized scholarship such as The historical dictionary of the music and musicians of Finland by Ruth-Esther Hillilä and Barbara Blanchard Hong, the only comprehensive English-language reference devoted entirely to Finnish music and culture. Spanning a broad historical range from antiquity to the late 20th century, these encyclopedic resources collectively highlight the depth of Finnish musical life, its historiography, and its continued relevance within both national and international contexts.

Kalevala-style song (soloist and choir): Timo Leisiö, Kalevalaisen kansanlaulun ulottuvuuksia, 1976. Liv Greni, Miep Zijlstra, Dilkka Kolehmainen, and Rina Barbier, “Finland”, Vocale muziek, Algemene muziek encyclopedie, eds. Jozef Robijns and Miep Zijlstra (Haarlem: De Haan/Unieboek, 1979–84). Article published 1980.

Finally, the articles dedicated to Finland in the standalone encyclopedias—DEUMM Online and MGG Online—provide a thorough inspection of the county’s vocal and instrumental traditional musics, art music from the Middle Ages to the contemporary era, and modern musical life, including the music industry, concerts, opera, and festivals. Valuable bibliographies accompany both as well.

Beyond this, both resources contain many entries that center on Finnish musicians across several genres. In MGG Online, the researcher will encounter 62 Finnish composers, 14 conductors, and eight pianists, for example. Additionally, both encyclopedias cover not only the nation’s artistic production, but its scholarly output as well, with entries on prominent Finnish musicologists and music critics.

The jouhikko player Juho Vaittinen (d.1916) from East Karelia, in playing position. Ilkaa Oramo, “Finnland”, Volksmusik, Die Instrumente und die Instrumentalmusik, MGG Online, ed. Laurenz Lütteken. (New York: RILM; Kassel: Bärenreiter; Stuttgart: Metzler, 2016–) Article published November 2016.

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Filed under 20th- and 21st-century music, Baroque era, Classic era, Dance, Dramatic arts, Ethnomusicology, Europe, Film music, Geography, Iconography, Instruments, Jazz and blues, Language, Literature, Mass media, Middle Ages, Music education, Music industry, Musicologists, Musicology, Nature, Opera, Opera, Pedagogy, Performance practice, Performers, Popular music, Reception, Religious music, Renaissance, Romantic era, Sound, Theory, Therapy, Visual art, Voice, World music

Tagged as cultural heritage, Ethnomusicology, Europe, Finland, International Council for Traditional Music, Musicology, Opera, Popular music, Research, RILM, RILM Resources, Voicing Innocence

by rilm | October 11, 2025 · 6:00 am

Functions of the kidiu in East Malaysia

The kidiu (pictured above) is a unique aerophone in Malaysian folk music, specifically a bullroarer, which is a type of free aerophone that lacks an air column or closed air reservoir. Used by the Kenyah-Badang ethnic group in the Upper Rejang River region of Sarawak, the kidiu is typically played in small ensembles of two or three bullroarers to create melodies. The kidiu consists of a flat, oval disc made from wood or bamboo, with precise dimensions–at least ten centimeters in length, about eight to ten centimeters in width, and two to three centimeters in thickness. The disc is attached to a string, which is connected to a bamboo pole with a handle, with both the string and bamboo pole being approximately the same length.

The player holds the bamboo pole by its handle and swings the kidiu disc quickly through the air, generating swirling air currents that produce distinct short notes. These notes vary based on the size of the disc and the speed at which it is swung. Typically, two or more players use differently sized kidiu discs, swinging them at specific intervals to create a range of notes, depending on the strength and direction of their swings–either forward, backward, or in a circular motion. Played in an interlocking pattern, the two or three kidiu discs produce repeating short melodic phrases as long as the players continue swinging them.

Kenyah kidiu. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

Initially, the kidiu was used in rice paddies to scare away pests like birds, mice, and insects that threatened the rice crops. Over time, however, it evolved into a musical instrument used for entertainment among the residents of the longhouse.

This according to the featured article on the music of Malaysia by Patricia Matusky in MGG Online.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, Nature, Uncategorized, World music

Tagged as aerophone, bamboo, instrument, kidiu, Malaysia, Sarawak, Southeast Asia

by rilm | August 16, 2025 · 6:00 am

The Hindustani bīṇ

The term “vīṇā” has appeared in various Vedic texts dating back to the early first millennium B.C.E. Originally a generic designation for stringed instruments, the term has been used in diverse ways across India and throughout parts of Southeast Asia. Evolving directly from earlier medieval stick zithers, the Hindustani bīṇ (the word for vīṇā or rudra veena in North India) came to be regarded as one of the most esteemed instruments in the Hindustani musical tradition. Alongside the rabāb, the bīṇ held a central place in court and classical music traditions. Its significance was underscored by the honorary title mahatī vīṇā (the great vīṇā). The art of playing the bīṇ was transmitted through hereditary family traditions, or gharānās, some of which trace their lineage back to the legendary court musician Tānsen, who served under the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Musical knowledge was closely guarded within these lineages, and professional performance of the bīṇ was typically restricted to male members of the family.

A portrait of the Hindustani classical musician, Mian Tansen.

The modern form of the bīṇ likely emerged during the 19th century. Earlier versions featured a string holder made of bamboo with wooden end pieces inserted; later designs replaced this with a fully wooden tube, constructed by joining two hollowed-out halves. At the lower end sits a high, often hollow bridge supported by a wide, arched piece of bone. The instrument now has 24 tall wooden frets with metal inlays along the playing edges, laced on in a movable fashion. Seven large tuning pegs are inserted through the string holder from both the right and left sides. Four main playing strings run across the frets, accompanied by three additional strings—used for drone and rhythmic punctuation—two positioned on the left side of the tube (closest to the player) and one on the right. These auxiliary strings each rest on separate, broad bone bridges at the lower end of the instrument. Two large resonators, made from bottle gourds fitted with wooden components, are attached to the back of the string carrier using hollow threaded fittings. Each resonator has a hand-sized round opening at the rear, contributing to the bīṇ’s distinctive tonal resonance.

This according to a recently published entry on the vina by Pia Srinivasan Buonomo in MGG Online.

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Tagged as bīṇ, Hindustani music, instrument, North India, Tansen

by rilm | July 7, 2025 · 6:00 am

Pre-Columbian musical elements in the Veracruz region

The Veracruz region forms part of Mesoamerica—a broad geocultural area in Central America where diverse cultural traits developed and spread beginning around 1500 B.C.E., culminating in the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in 1521. Many of these cultural characteristics remain evident in the region to this day. Mesoamerica encompasses much of present-day Mexico, along with significant portions of Central America. Over a span of 3,000 years, numerous cultures emerged, flourished, and subsequently declined within this area, exhibiting both distinct differences and a shared set of features now identified as Mesoamerican. Due to this cultural continuity, it is important–especially in the study of specific regions like Veracruz and the Gulf Coast–to differentiate between local traditions and elements common across Mesoamerica. This distinction is particularly relevant when examining musical instruments, as only a limited number of sound-producing objects appear to be unique to specific regions.

No known music from the Veracruz or Gulf Coast region has survived from pre-Columbian times. While the region’s folkloric genres likely retain elements from earlier periods, it is challenging to distinguish these features from those shaped by later cultural influences. Although this is a common feature across Mesoamerica, there are notable exceptions. In Guatemala, for instance, certain bailes (dance performances), such as the Rab’inal Achí and the baile de las canastas, have been shown to preserve rhythmic systems, instrumental roles, intervallic structures, and song forms that are almost certainly of pre-Columbian origin. Such bailes–which may contain traces of ancient musical systems–are not confined to Guatemala but continue to be performed across various regions of Latin America.

A festival featuring Rab’inal Achí in Guatemala.

Ethnomusicological studies to identify surviving pre-Columbian musical elements in the contemporary traditions of the northern Gulf Coast have largely been inconclusive. The only potentially significant example is the ritual dance bisom tiu (the hawk or eagle dance), which continues to be performed at the ancient Huastec site of Tamtoc. However, the accompanying music lacks the non-Western features found in Guatemalan bailes and does not exhibit any unique characteristics that have yet to be documented elsewhere. Nonetheless, certain rhythmic elements appear to retain connections to the pre-Hispanic soundscape of the Veracruz/Gulf Coast region. Excavations in the area have uncovered hundreds, if not thousands, of musical instruments or fragments, many of which were clearly crafted to produce a wide range of timbral variations. The absence of standardized tuning among these instruments suggests that timbre may have been prioritized over pitch, intervals, or melodic structure in the region’s musical practices.

This according to this month’s featured article by Mark Howell on Pre-Columbian music of Veracruz. Find it in DEUMM Online.

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Filed under Central America, Dance, Dramatic arts, Geography, Instruments, World music

Tagged as bailes, Central America, Dance, Gulf Coast, Indigenous Americans, Instruments, Mesoamerica, Mexico, Veracruz

by rilm | July 2, 2025 · 6:00 am

Improvisation schemas and the Turkmen dutar

The Turkmen dutar is a long-necked, two-stringed lute distinguished by its pear-shaped resonating body and thin wooden soundboard. Both the body and soundboard are carved from mulberry wood, while the neck is crafted from the dried trunk of an apricot tree. To construct the instrument, the mulberry wood is carefully rounded, hollowed out, and polished to shape the body. The soundboard wood undergoes a drying process—baked for up to 24 hours to eliminate moisture—before being affixed over the hollowed chamber using traditional bone glue. Traditionally tuned a fourth apart, its two strings serve distinct musical functions: the higher-pitched string carries the primary melody, while the lower-pitched string is often muted by the thumb of the playing hand to produce a shifting parallel melody. Alternatively, the lower string may ring open to function as a drone in certain pieces or passages. Believed to descend from ancient Babylonian and Egyptian lutes, the dutar today is primarily used to accompany Turkmen bards known as bagşy (or bakshy). In the south central Ahal region of Turkmenistan, however, dutar players have cultivated a solo instrumental repertoire. Historically passed down orally, this body of music has, in recent decades, seen partial transcription into a modified form of Western notation for pedagogical purposes. Formally sophisticated and largely through-composed, the repertoire still allows space for variation and interpretive flexibility.

Oghlan Bakhshi (middle), a virtuoso Turkmen dutar player, performs with his group.

In Turkmen music, the term hasap, which literally means account or reckoning, carries a range of other nuanced meanings. In everyday use, one might request a hasap when settling a bill at a restaurant or inquiring about the score of a game. Within musical contexts, hasap denotes various interpretive and structural concepts. Musicians may refer to a particular master’s hasap for a given piece, or more generally to the shared hasap of a composition. Along with related terms such as nusga, forma, and skema, hasap can indicate a skeletal melodic framework that individual performers elaborate through ornamentation and stylistic variation. Comparative transcriptions of extended passages–whether interpreted by multiple dutar players or revisited by the same performer–often reveal consistency in underlying structure, with variation appearing primarily in melodic embellishment, rhythmic phrasing, and the treatment of the lower string.

Excerpt from the song *Balsaýat*, transcribed by Ýazmyrat Rejepow.

Turkmen dutar players navigate the dual imperative to both preserve and creatively reinterpret traditional repertoire. To do so, they draw on a repertoire of internalized formulas, compositional schemas, and aesthetic principles to generate new musical material–whether in improvisation or composition. These strategies parallel those found in other music traditions, such as Hindustani music, Persian classical music, and jazz, where deep immersion in a musical system enables spontaneous creativity within established boundaries. Like Persian musicians who internalize the radif through prolonged apprenticeship, Turkmen performers absorb such frameworks, often without formal codification. Turkmen dutar players, however, tend to reapply these principles not just in improvisatory spaces, but within the reinterpretation of the inherited compositions themselves.

This according to “Principles of transmission and collective composition in Turkmen dutar performance” by David Fossum (Analytical approaches to world musics 5/2 [2017] 37 p.; RILM Abstracts with Full Text, 2017-43691) and the entry on the dutar in Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary (1964); find it in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The Turkmen dutar is on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Below, Oghlan Bakhshi performs the traditional Turkmen song Boy bibi. The video after it, created by UNESCO, is on dutar making and performance.

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Filed under Asia, Ethnomusicology, Instruments, Nature, World music

Tagged as Central Asia, dutar, hasap, Improvisation, Instruments, Lute, repertoire, transmission, Turkmenistan, UNESCO

by rilm | June 9, 2025 · 6:00 am

The Chilean guitarrón

The guitarrón, an instrument of central Chile, is known as one of the most complex stringed instruments in the Americas due to its unique string arrangement and quantity. Shaped like a guitar, the guitarrón features a total of 25 strings–21 arranged in five courses, with an additional four strings positioned along the sides. The guitarrón is customarily used to accompany sung poetry in décimas, a Spanish stanza form consisting of ten lines.

The cover of Hugo Arévalo’s album *El guitarrón y el canto a lo pueta* (1970).

In performance, the guitarrón is held similarly to a guitar, with the left hand muting the strings along the neck and the right hand plucking them over the body. The instrument’s position can vary from horizontal to vertical, depending on the musician’s preference and their proximity to other performers. Guitarrón players, known as guitarroneros, are often also proficient guitarists, capable of executing a wide range of strumming techniques–though these are never applied to the guitarrón. Instead, the instrument is played exclusively with plucking techniques. Occasionally, one or two notes are struck rapidly with the index finger as an ornamental flourish, but traditional guitar strumming is avoided. When guitarrón repertoire is performed on guitar, musicians typically imitate the plucked pizzicato style.

The history of the Chilean guitarrón remains largely unclear. Its origins can be traced back to the Spanish guitar, rather than the more refined vihuela favored by the urban elite. The guitarrón shares the general body shape and structural features of the guitar, though with certain variations. Its development mirrors the evolution of the Spanish guitar introduced to the Americas from the 16th century onward. Early guitars of that period typically had four strings, arranged in single or double courses. By the late 16th century, the five-course guitar emerged and remained prevalent in rural regions, even after the seven-course guitar gained popularity in urban centers toward the end of the 18th century. Interestingly, the modern six-string guitar is sometimes still used as a five-course instrument, either by loosening the sixth string or tuning it in unison with the fifth.

This according to DEUMM Online’s featured article of the month by José Pérez de Arce, entitled Chilean guitarrón.

Hugo Arévalo performs on the guitarrón below. The video after it, featuring Santos Rubio on guitarrón, was made by Daniel Sheehy, the ethnomusicologist and future director and curator of Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, in 1973 during his fieldwork in Chile.

Acholitronix: Fusing electronic and traditional music in Uganda

In contemporary Africa, new electronic music can generally be classified into two distinct categories. The first involves artists who adapt mainstream genres like house, techno, or electronica, giving them a local twist. These artists incorporate samples of traditional music into the structural framework of these genres, creating a fusion that resonates with specific social groups and aids in creating cultural identity. This approach often includes elements such as traditional or Afrofuturist stage costumes, further reinforcing the connection to local heritage. The second category stems from technical limitations. These artists, often working without access to live musicians, turn to digital tools to create traditional-sounding music that aligns with the structures of electronic genres. Their goal is not to target global club scenes, but rather to address the need for musical accompaniment in traditional performances. Many of these genres emerged at weddings, where they blended respect for cultural traditions with a desire for innovation, reflecting the celebration of the couple, their families, and the community.

In northern Uganda, the fusion of Acholi music with electronic elements has led to the emergence of a new genre called Acholitronix. The term is a blend of “Acholi” and “electronic,” and it has gained significant traction in global alternative electronic music circles, largely due to two influential albums released by the Kampala-based Nyege Nyege Tapes label: Otim Alpha’s Gulu city anthems (2017) and the compilation album Electro Acholi’s kaboom (2019). Another key figure in the Acholitronix movement is Akena P’Layeng Okella, better known as Leo Palayeng (pictured above). Palayeng began playing the inanga harp at the age of six, shortly after his father was killed during the war between the Ugandan government and various armed factions in northern Uganda. His early experiences as a musician shed light on how musical traditions transform in societies affected by trauma and sociopolitical upheavals, both during the colonial era and more recently through the civil war.

As an Acholi musician, Palayeng’s life has mirrored the changing dynamics of his community, as he has been an active participant in its cultural evolution. In the late 1990s, Palayeng joined a theater group where he performed dance routines set to rumba and rap music. During this time, he began recording his first rap songs and became a radio announcer. He also explored music production using early sound software like Fruity Loops 3.45, eventually producing his first Acholi electronic tracks.

Palayeng performs Acholitronix in Mexico in 2019.

Since beginning his career as a producer in the early 2000s, Palayeng has embraced a musician-researcher approach to his work. He actively records and archives the musical traditions of various Acholi instruments, often incorporating them into his own compositions. To document and preserve Acholi musical heritage, Palayeng travels to the outskirts of Ugandan cities to capture the sounds of traditional music and instruments. This archival effort holds deep significance for Palayeng–not only does it instill a sense of pride in his own Luo cultural heritage, but it also serves as a wellspring of inspiration for his future work. His creative process typically begins with acoustic samples, which he then layers with an electronic aesthetic. This aesthetic is defined by the integration of MIDI instruments and additional samples alongside the traditional recordings. One of the defining features of Acholitronix is the use of call-and-response, a central element of Acholi music. Another notable aspect of this genre is the shift in tempo—where traditional rhythms are often sped up, with tracks rarely dipping below 160 beats per minute, marking the transition from acoustic to electronic with a noticeable acceleration.

Cover art for an album by Emiliano Motta and Leo Palayeng.

Cover art for Otim Alpha’s *Gulu city anthems* album (2017).

Reflecting on this creative adaptation, Palayeng explains, “I decided to blend traditional Acholi rhythms with electronic patterns. The process of creating the first larakaraka loops wasn’t easy—it took a lot of time. I started by recording traditional drums and calabash sounds to create samples for Fruity Loops add-ons, which I then installed onto my computer. I was able to capture the true essence of Acholi sounds with a focus on quality. One night, after a long session in the disco hall, the club closed, and I found myself deep in thought. I decided to create a simple project using a Fruity Loops sequence. I cranked the BPM up to 158, then dropped the calabash samples into the MIDI sequence, making them feel like they were being played live on stage. Boom! That was it. The loops for wedding celebrations and other electronic Acholi tribal patterns I used to play on the inanga came rushing back to me.”

This according to “Leo Palayeng: Bridging the gap from traditional to electronic Acholi music” by Rémy Jadinon (African music: Journal of the International Library of African Music 11/4 [2022] 90–106; RILM Abstracts with Full Text, 2022-22008).

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Filed under Africa, Instruments, Mass media, Performers, Popular music, World music

Tagged as Acholitronix, Afrofuturism, Electronic, Globalization, Leo Palayeng, syncretism, Uganda

by rilm | May 3, 2025 · 6:00 am

The marriage of sounds and music in the Arab world: An annotated bibliography

The library of the Institut du Monde Arabe (Arab World Institute) in Paris is home to an extensive collection of writings on music from the Arab world, a region stretching from the Atlas Mountains to the Indian Ocean. This series of blog posts highlights selections from this collection, along with abstracts written by RILM staff members contained in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, the comprehensive bibliography of writings about music and music-related subjects. In 2026, the Institut du Monde Arabe will host an exhibition on wedding cultures in the Arab world, and the institute’s library will hold an on-site exhibition of its book collection covering this topic.

In the Arab world, weddings unfold through a series of ceremonies where daily preparations and references to the sacred intertwine to initiate and bless the union of two families. From the first promises of the engagement ceremony to the morning after the wedding night, each step is guided by social norms and enveloped in society’s ideals of generosity, community, and gender roles. Whether it takes place in a single day or over the traditional seven days, each step of the wedding is intentionally marked by specific melodies, rhythms, and sounds. Prior to the actual wedding ceremony, during the night of ḥinnaẗ, natural dye is applied to the bride’s hands and feet as women praise the her beauty and recount love’s woes in song. Then, joyous zaġārīd (trills) through the air to declare the news to all, near and far, as the cantillation of the Qur’an or other sacred prayers proclaims the couple’s union in front of God. As upbeat drums of the zaffaẗ announce and accompany the procession of the newlyweds, a subtler percussion chimes from the ẖilẖāl, the bride’s anklet, gifted from the groom to the bride to honor her femininity. These sounds intertwine with the most refined cultural expressions–skillfully crafted jewelry, intricately embroidered adornments, fragrances, and the finest cuisine, all blended together in celebration.

*Le mariage* by Tunisian painter Ahmed Hajeri. Source: Altaïr portal of the Institut du Monde Arabe. Copyright: Musée de l’Institut du monde arabe/Philippe Maillard.

Even as the rush of modern life permeates every aspect of society in the Arab world, weddings continue to preserve many of the age-old customs. The related ceremonies create a momentary pause in the relentless flow of life to mark new social bonds and a transformation from singularity to family. The writings and research related to this lifecycle event covered in the annotated bibliography below explore the enduring customs across various regions of the Arab world: from the Tuareg tribes of the Sahara Desert and the Nubian tribes of the Nile Valley to urban dwellers in Cairo and Mosul. They document lyrics, transcribe melodies, describe instruments, and detail the roles of men and women in musical performances–all in an ongoing effort to understand and preserve this rich heritage of wedding customs and music.

Annotated bibliography

ʿAlī, Muḥammad Šiḥātaẗ. أغاني النساء في صعيد مصر: الأعراس، البكائيات، التحنين [Women’s songs in Upper Egypt: Wedding, lament, and pilgrimage songs] (al-Qāhiraẗ: al-Hayʾaẗ al-Miṣriyyaẗ al-ʿĀmmaẗ li-l-Kitāb, 2015). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2015-92222; IMA catalogue reference].

Transcribing orally transmitted songs in Upper Egypt is crucial, especially as many of them are at risk of being forgotten due to the passing of older women who have memorized them. Song texts were collected as the result of ethnographic research in villages in the al-Badārī province of the Asyut governorate. The three main categories of the transcribed repertoire are songs related to rites of passage, such as weddings and their associated ceremonies, funeral and lament songs known as bukāʾiyyāt, and songs known as taḥnīn, performed in preparation for the pilgrimage. An appendix with photos capturing women’s activities in various aspects of life, including domestic chores, agricultural work, food preparation, and market activities is included.

ʿArnīṭaẗ, Yusrá Ǧawhariyyaẗ. الفنون الشعبية في فلسطين [Popular arts in Palestine] (Rāmallāh: Dār al-Šurūq li-l-Našr wa-al-Tawzīʿ, 2013). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2013-54151; IMA catalogue reference]

The tangible and intangible forms of folklore–encompassing popular musical expressions, embroidery customs, and ceremonial practices associated with marriage and celebrations–serve as testimony to the enduring heritage and cultural continuity of the Palestinian people. The present effort to document select aspects of Palestinian folklore serves several purposes: first, to safeguard these manifestations of popular culture and ensure their continuity; second, to forge a robust connection between the present and history; third, to uncover the creative dimensions inherent in Palestinian folklore; and ultimately, to inspire fellow researchers in music and the arts to undertake similar endeavors in documenting Palestinian folklore. Folk songs should be approached with the same urgency to study and preserve such as other Palestinian traditions. Popular songs’ characteristics are detailed, including the characteristics of colloquial dialects, the melodic content, maqam structure, ornaments, and more. Transcriptions of the melodies of 66 songs, along with their transcribed lyrics, are included and are chosen as hailing from different cities. The songs are grouped by topic or occasion, as follows: children’s songs and lullabies, songs of religious holidays and celebrations; love and wedding songs; songs of war and encouragement; work songs; drinking, satirical, and political songs; dance songs; funeral chants and laments; songs of stories and tales. Popular song is a reflection of the Palestinian peoples’ ways of life and social customs and is a spontaneous expression of collective feelings and aspirations.

al-ʿĀṣimī, Ğamīlaẗ. أغاني نساء مراكش: اللعابات، الطقيطقات، الهواري، التهضيرة [Women’s songs in Marrākuš: The laʿābāt, the ṭaqīṭaqāt, the hawārī, and the tahḍīraẗ] (Marrākuš: Muʾassassaẗ Āfāq li-l-Dirāsāt wa-al-Našr wa-al-Ittiṣāl, 2012). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2012-50441; IMA catalogue reference].

Women’s songs in Marrākuš are transmitted orally from one woman to another, they are unauthored and composed collectively. Based on fieldwork with professional women performers, song forms and texts are transcribed alongside documentation on the accompanying percussion instruments and the names of the women’s groups performing each piece. Twenty-four song texts from the laʿābāt, a women’s ensemble that performs during weddings and related ceremonies, are included. Additionally, 20 song texts of the ṭaqīṭaqāt, a song form that is also performed by the laʿābāt groups on festive occasions and features articulate lyrics and steady rhythms, are transcribed. Twenty-nine song texts from two types of the hawārī song form are included, and 11 song texts of the tahḍīraẗ form, performed by groups of women during weddings, promenades, or private gatherings, are presented. An appendix contains 12 transcriptions of short excerpts from songs and the notation for each percussion section of the two hawārī song forms.

al-Asyūṭī, Darwīš. أفراح الصعيد الشعبية: من طقوس ونصوص احتفاليات الزواج والحمل والولادة والختان [The weddings of Upper Egypt: Rituals, texts, and ceremonies of marriage, pregnancy, and circumcision] (al-Qāhiraẗ: al-Hayʾaẗ al-Miṣriyyaẗ al-ʿĀmmaẗ li-l-Kitāb, 2012). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2012-52032; IMA catalogue reference].

Describes the rituals and customs associated with engagement and marriage preparation in Asyut, Upper Egypt. It covers various traditions, including the dowry presentation, the shopping process for establishing a new bridal household, the ḥinnaẗ night for the bride, and the ritual shower for the groom, among other related ceremonies. It also includes transcriptions of song lyrics collected from narrators in Asyut, as well as others memorized by the author.

Bayrūk, ʿAzzaẗ. الغناء الحساني بين التنظيم والتلقائية [Hassanian singing between structure and spontaneity] (al-Rabāṭ: Markaz al-Dirāsāt al-Ṣaḥrāwiyyaẗ/Centre des Études Sahariennes, 2015). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2015-92229; IMA catalogue reference].

The singing of the Ḥassānī tribes can be categorized into two branches: structured singing, also known as the hūl, which has been shaped by the influences of Arab, African, and Berber traditions and developed during the Ḥassānī rule in the Western Sahara during the 15th and 16th centuries; and a second branch that is unstructured and spontaneous, encompassing prophetic praise, wedding songs, rain songs, work songs, and lullabies, among others. The analysis includes a selection of song texts and their social contexts.

al-Daywahǧī, Saʿīd. تقاليد الزواج في الموصل [Marriage traditions in Mosul] (al-Mawṣil: Muʾassasaẗ Dār al-Kutub, 1975). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1975-28979; IMA catalogue reference].

Explores the social customs associated with marriage in Mosul, from the etiquette of selecting a bride or groom to the week-long wedding celebrations and the social norms governing interactions between the families of the bride and groom. Transcriptions of the lyrics of 32 wedding songs are included. Thematically, these songs celebrate the bride and groom, describe their virtues and beauty, express the families’ emotions as they bid farewell to their daughters and sons, and highlight societal expectations of marriage, among other topics.

El Mallah, Issam. The role of women in Omani musical life/Die Rolle der Frau im Musikleben Omans (Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1997). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1997-11646; IMA catalogue reference].

The role of women in the transmission and preservation of Omani traditional music is significant, as is their influence. Women take on roles as singers, drummers, dancers, instrumentalists, and leaders in organizing dance and singing groups. The participation of women in musical arts can be grouped into two categories: arts exclusively practiced by women and those practiced alongside men. The ones involving men and women include collective dance, collective drumming, and work songs. The art forms exclusively practiced by women include women’s drumming circles, women’s work songs, Bedouin dances, wedding songs and dances, traditional healing ceremonies, and arts involving young girls. A description of the setting and context of each art form is included.

Ibn Ḥarbān, Ǧāsim Muḥammad. الزواج في المجتمع البحريني عاداته، تقاليده، فنونه [Marriage in Bahraini society: Customs, traditions, and arts] (Bayrūt: al-Muʾassasaẗ al-ʿArabiyyaẗ li-l-Dirāsāt wa-al-Našr, 2000). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2000-84970; IMA catalogue reference].

Weddings in Bahrain involve a wealth of cultural expressions. The process of marriage includes various customs such as dowry arrangements and the elaborate preparation of both the groom and the bride. There are specific dress codes for men and women, along with jewelry, embellishments, and perfumes designated for each. The food prepared for weddings is also central to the ceremony. Women musician ensembles known as the ʿiddaẗ typically perform at these events. The song forms and accompanying dances, including the dizzaẗ and the zaffaẗ, are described, along with the rhythms and percussion instruments used. Related arts and customs are also discussed, such as the practice of naḍir–a ritual where individuals offer physical or symbolic gifts in hopes of fulfilling a wish or prayer; the ʿāšūrī which involves women performing drums and dance ceremonies; the ẖammārī, a women’s dance where participants are covered with a body cloth; and the naǧdī mawwāl, a song form sung by women, among other events. Transcriptions of some song texts and rhythms are included.

Mahfoufi, Mehenna. Chants de femmes en Kabylie: Fêtes et rites au village–Étude d’ethnomusicologie [Women’s songs in Minṭaqaẗ al-Qabāʾil: Celebrations and rites in the village–An ethnomusicological study]. (Paris: Ibis Press, 2005). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2005-16247; IMA catalogue reference].

A study of village song in Minṭaqaẗ al-Qabāʾil, focusing on the songs of women that accompany various festivals and the rhythm of daily life: birth, marriage, the expression of love, lullabies, bouncing (a game that consists of bouncing babies on one’s lap), death, and religious song. The songs are transcribed and translated, and their musical form is described and analyzed. The accompanying CD features wedding songs in tracks 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13.

Mécheri-Saada, Nadia. Musique touarègue de l’Ahaggar (sud algérien) [Tuareg music of the Ahaggar in southern Algeria] (Paris: Awal; Paris: L’Harmattan, 1994). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 1995-9971; IMA catalogue reference].

The Ahaggar in southern Algeria is the homeland of Tuareg culture. Tuareg music is linked to the context of its performance, notably village festivals. Principal Tuareg instruments include the imzad (one-string fiddle), the tazamar (end-blown flute), and drums. Five musical genres are differentiated, including women’s marriage songs (āléwen) and the chanted poetry accompanied by drums, the tindé. The music’s texts, their themes, their social significance, and their poetics are analyzed.

Kamāl, Ṣafwat. “أفراح النوبة” [The weddings of the Nubia], al-Funūn al-šaʿbiyyaẗ 100 (yanāyir-dīsambir, 2015) 51–75. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2015-92886; IMA catalog reference].

In Nubia, marriage involves customs and rituals ranging from the engagement period to the ḥinnaẗ night in preparation for the wedding, the offering of a dowry, a feast on the wedding day, and the exchange of gifts, among others. The celebrations typically last for seven days. Transcriptions of selected songs that accompany these rituals were collected before the displacement of the Nubian peoples following the building of the Aswan Dam in the 1960s and thus highlight traditional Nubian social values and religious beliefs.

Puig, Nicolas. Farah: Musiciens de noces et scènes urbaines au Caire (Arles: Actes Sud, 2010). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2010-54197; IMA catalogue reference].

Faraḥ, which literally means joy or happiness, refers to the wedding ceremonies and street festivities in Egypt. Vibrant wedding nights, featuring musical ensembles, dancers, and many forms of socialization reflect social class and status. Musicians’ and singers’ negotiation of social norms and perceptions is approached as social performance. A proper understanding of marriage festivities in urban spaces is situated within the evolving attitudes towards public urban areas in Cairo, and in relation to other local festivities such as festivals and the celebration of saints’ mawlid. Since the mid-19th century, the modernizing reforms of public urban spaces have significantly influenced the venues for public music-making in Cairo, leading to changes in musical forms, the introduction of new instruments, and the adoption of new technologies. These changes have, in turn, affected the form and delivery of music during street weddings. A closer examination of the lives and work of four wedding musicians illustrates the numerous economic and social factors that shape their careers, their aspirations, and the challenges they encounter as wedding musicians in Cairo.

Written and compiled by Farah Zahra, Associate Editor, RILM

The traveling organ

When the congregation of the Catholic Heilig-Geist-Kirche in the historic Hanseatic town of Lemgo, North Rhine-Westphalia, embarked on a renovation project from 2021 to 2023, they sought to replace their aging electronic organ with a proper pipe organ but were constrained by budget limitations. An opportunity arose to acquire a nearly century-old Wurlitzer Style D theater organ, built by the Wurlitzer factory in North Tonawanda, New York (near Niagara Falls), in 1924. The organ was first acquired in the late 1940s by Dr. Howard C. Stocker for his personal use in Los Angeles. By 1955, Stocker had moved the organ to San Bernardino (just east of Los Angeles), installing it in a custom-built home specially adapted to accommodate the instrument’s size and requirements. The house soon became a popular venue for concerts. In 1987, tragedy struck when a fire destroyed the entire house–but remarkably, the organ survived. Despite the unfortunate event, Stocker was quite relieved because he believed a house could be rebuilt, but the Style D organ was irreplaceable.

After Stocker’s death in 1993, the organ was temporarily stored in Kansas before being transported to Celle, Lower Saxony, Germany. There, cinema organ enthusiast Friedhelm Fleiter–who had long sought a Wurlitzer Style D–discovered it. For many years, Fleiter preserved and maintained the instrument as a personal passion project. To ensure its functionality, several components were carefully restored and modified for use in the church; however, preserving the original organ’s design and architectural integrity remained the top priority.

When the organ was relocated to the church, preserving the original Wurlitzer Style D façade proved impossible. Instead, a new organ case was designed to complement the church’s architectural style. The organ’s structure consists of two vertically stacked, roughly cube-shaped sections, along with a freestanding console. The upper section houses the pipework and features swell doors on two sides, which remain closed when the organ is not in use to ensure the enclosed pipes stay in tune. Although the new organ cannot fully replicate the musical fidelity of the original, it serves its purpose well in worship settings, particularly for accompanying congregational singing.

This according to “100 Jahre und kein bisschen leise: Eine Wurlitzer-Orgel (1924) für Lemgo” [100 years old and not a bit quiet: A Wurlitzer organ (1924) for Lemgo] by Ralf-Thomas Lindner (Organ: Journal für die Orgel 27/4 [2024] 26–30; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2024-20513).

Listen to Singing in the rain performed on a Wurlitzer Style D organ below. The second video features a different model Wurlitzer organ.

Category Archives: Instruments

The Iraqi maqām: An Intangible Cultural Heritage at risk

Annotated bibliography

Covering the cultural heritage of Finland in RILM

Functions of the kidiu in East Malaysia

The Hindustani bīṇ

Pre-Columbian musical elements in the Veracruz region

Improvisation schemas and the Turkmen dutar

The Chilean guitarrón

Acholitronix: Fusing electronic and traditional music in Uganda

The marriage of sounds and music in the Arab world: An annotated bibliography

Annotated bibliography

The traveling organ

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