Category Archives: Politics

by rilm | October 22, 2026 · 6:00 am

From zines to a digital archive

In the late 2010s, RILM initiated a project to create a digital archive of music zines, prompted by an extensive collection loaned from the Berklee College of Music Library, which faced storage limitations. These zines, originating from the punk subculture, are more than just magazines; they are essential primary sources that document underground music scenes, festivals, and the unfiltered voices of musicians and fans, providing valuable insights into cultural movements and themes like feminism, LGBTQ+ visibility, gender non-conformism, censorship, and political criticism. However, many of these zines remain difficult to find and costly to access.

RILM decided to preserve the collection digitally, combining high-quality page images with searchable HTML text. The collection was designed so that researchers can browse issues page by page and search across the collection; it also improves accessibility for users with disabilities. From the beginning, the archive was intended to reflect the international nature of popular music. Beyond the primarily U.S.-based Berklee collection, local zines were licensed from countries including China, Colombia, Spain, and Germany through RILM’s international networks.

实验先锋 *China avant-garde music fanzine*, vol.1 (2011)

One of the project’s biggest challenges was obtaining rights. Many zine authors were unfamiliar with RILM and digital licensing, making it difficult to explain the project before there was an archive to show them. Identifying rights holders could also be complicated. Once permissions were secured, collecting the actual materials presented another challenge–in actuality, licenses were obtained for only about 20 percent of the Berklee collection. Much of the remaining material came directly from authors, who sometimes had to locate copies through their own networks, while other materials were sourced from institutions. The goal was to preserve each issue as completely as possible, including inserts, advertisements, stickers, flexi discs, and other ephemera. Ideally, digital scans were provided at 400 DPI in grayscale or color. But not every surviving copy is pristine, and it was decided to preserve many imperfections rather than erase them. Creases, faded pages, marks, and other signs of aging are part of the history of the zines. Retaining them preserves not only the zine’s information but also something of the experience of encountering it in its original form.

This scan of an article from *Evolution of a race riot*, no. 1 (1996) includes creases and other marks of aging.

In May 2025, the RILM Archive of Popular Music Magazines (RAPMM) launched with more than 125 titles, 2,000 issues, and 100,000 pages of content. The collection spanned genres, countries, languages, and decades, featuring articles, interviews, band profiles, album reviews, and record label histories. Building the archive required more than digitizing the publications. RILM developed new conversion workflows, an editorial viewer, and a user platform capable of combining page images, searchable text, and preservation of the complete issue. The result is a growing digital record of popular music history–one that makes previously obscure publications discoverable and gives researchers and readers access to the firsthand voices of musicians, writers, and fans. As new zines are added each year, RAPMM continues to expand, preserving the diverse stories and communities that have shaped popular music.

Afrobeat, hip hop, and Nigerian activism

Nigerian music genres, particularly Afrobeat, have historically sparked social consciousness, with Fela Anikulapo Kuti as a prominent figure. His energetic performances aimed to confront oppressive regimes in Nigeria and beyond, addressing neocolonial influences from Western powers. Despite facing assaults and imprisonment, Fela remained dedicated to his enduring belief that an artist’s role extends beyond entertainment; it includes provoking public thought and raising awareness about social issues. His commitment to these ideals has left a lasting impact on the cultural and political landscape of Nigeria.

Fela remained a steadfast opponent of Nigerian military rulers until his death in 1997. While some musicians have attempted to carry the torch of his activist legacy, few have been able to mobilize a significant following or resonate with the public as he did. Other genres, like Nigerian hip hop, have often faced criticism for promoting misogyny, materialism, and hedonism. In contrast, Fela’s counterculture has evolved into a broader global movement, gaining traction alongside the rising international popularity of Nigerian hip hop, now widely recognized as “Afrobeats.”

Cover art for the 1976 album *Zombie*, which was a scathing critique of the Nigerian government and military. Listen to the title track *Zombie* here.

One musician who has taken up this challenge is Falz (Folarin Falana), a dynamic Nigerian artist who combines humor with bold social commentary in his music. Like Fela, he uses his art to spotlight societal issues and foster awareness aimed at inspiring positive change. The son of renowned human rights lawyer Femi Falana and his wife, Funmi Falana, a lawyer and advocate in her own right, Falz initially trained as a lawyer before pursuing music, reminiscent of Fela’s own journey. Gaining fame through humorous social media skits that critique everyday Nigerian life, Falz’s music has evolved to address pressing social problems, urging ordinary Nigerians to recognize their role in perpetuating state repression and to advocate for change.

Falz initially garnered attention as a humorist on social media, creating skits that satirize everyday Nigerian life. As his music career progressed, his performances became more impactful, drawing inspiration from Fela both musically and politically. In his songs, Falz tackles pressing social issues in Nigeria and encourages listeners to actively resist and advocate for change. Notably, Falz emphasizes the collective responsibility of ordinary Nigerians, highlighting how the broader populace contributes to the state repression faced by citizens.

This according to “Re-imagining Afrobeat(s): Juxtaposing Fela and Falz’s social commentary and lyrical activism”, by Paul Ayodele Onanuga (African identities 23/3 [2025] 584–603; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2025-1229).

Below are two Falz music videos.

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Filed under Africa, Performers, Politics, Popular music

Tagged as Africa, Afrobeat, Hip hop, Hip hop music, Humor, Nigeria, Politics, Rap music, social commentary

by rilm | June 29, 2026 · 6:00 am

From the EBSCOpost backlist. V: Thakur and Mussolini (2013)

RILM staff periodically contribute writings to EBSCOpost, a lively blog run by our partners that publishes pieces pertinent to librarianship, higher education, and beyond. Over time, some of these posts are removed, and even those that remain generally recede from view, following the ephemeral nature of much digital content. With 60 years of preserving the world’s writings on music and music-related topics behind us, we are now adding a small rescue project: bringing these blog posts back into circulation. However modest, they help document our history as an organization, and we hope they will continue to resonate with our international readership as well as with any music enthusiast who happens upon them.

The series continues with another short piece by retired RILM editor Jim Cowdery. It relays a little-known (and perhaps surprising) meeting between two very different individuals who shared an interest in music’s ability to evoke powerful emotional responses.

Thakur and Mussolini

Near the end of his visit to Rome in 1933, the Hindustānī vocalist Omkarnath Thakur (1887–1968) received an invitation to dine with Mussolini; Il Duce had caught wind of Thakur’s theories and experiments regarding the inducement of emotional states by rāga performances, and he wanted a demonstration.

After a specially prepared vegetarian dinner, Thakur began with hindolam, which depicts valor. “When I was soaring in the high notes of the rāga,” he later recalled, “Mussolini suddenly said ‘Stop!’ I opened my eyes and found that he was sweating heavily. His face was pink and his eyes looked like burning coals. A few minutes later his visage gained normalcy and he said ‘A good experiment.’”

After Thakur brought him to tears with rāga chayanat, which is meant to depict pathos, Mussolini said, after taking some time to recover, “Very valuable and enlightening demonstration about the power of Indian music.”

Il Duce then returned the favor: Producing his violin, he treated Thakur to works by Paganini and Mozart. Again, both agreed on the music’s power to evoke emotion.

“I could not sleep at all the entire night,” the vocalist recalled, “wondering whether the meeting had really taken place; I thought it was a part of a dream.” The next day, two letters from Mussolini arrived—one thanking him and one appointing him as director of a newly formed university department to study the effect of music on the mind (an appointment that he was unable to accept).

This according to “Omkarnath Thakur & Benito Mussolini” by B.K.V. Sastry (Sruti 163 [April 1998] pp. 19–21; RILM Abstracts 1999-26342).

Although the exact date of this meeting is not recorded, we know that it took place in May 1933—80 years ago this month! Below, Thakur performs rāga bhairavi.

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Filed under Asia, Ethnomusicology, Music education, Musicology, Performers, Politics, RILM, Voice, World music

Tagged as Benito Mussolini, Curiosities, emotionality, Ethnomusicology, Hindustani music, Indian classical music, Italy, Musicology, Omkarnath Thakur, Performers, Politics, Raga, Voice

by rilm | June 17, 2026 · 6:00 am

Theater and (trans)gender in contemporary Brazil

During the 2000s, various minoritized groups in Brazil achieved unprecedented levels of self-representation and political visibility, attracting increasing attention from mainstream society. Nevertheless, legal recognition of transgender identities remains constrained. In Brazil, transgender individuals can only obtain official recognition of their gender identity upon reaching the age of 18. Moreover, despite the diversity of transgender experiences and identities present in everyday life, state institutions and public policies continue to rely largely on the concept of transsexuality. This framework, inherited from the previous century, tends to define a legitimate transgender person as someone who has undergone–or intends to undergo–some form of bodily modification. Some contemporary works in Brazilian teatra address these issues and the challenges faced by transgender people in everyday life.

Ofélia, a travesti gorda (Ophelia, the fat transsexual, 2018) presents a transgender reinterpretation of Shakespeare’s Ophelia. Through the protagonist’s journey, the play explores how a sense of belonging and self-recognition emerges for a transgender person within a society structured by exclusionary norms. Fat trans individuals experience a form of double marginalization, confronting both cisnormative expectations and dominant ideals of thinness. In this context, the play challenges conventional assumptions about who is entitled to embody certain identities and roles. A thin cisgender boy, for instance, is portrayed as fundamentally unsuited to the role of Ophelia–not only within the fictional universe of the play but also in relation to its broader social commentary. The work advances a radical critique of cisnormativity, framing it as a mechanism of coloniality that regulates bodies, identities, and social belonging. Through a narrative of self-discovery, the dramaturgy traces the social construction of gender while drawing explicit connections between the protagonist’s gender transition and the pressures imposed by beauty standards that privilege thinness.

The Brazilian artist and philosopher Magô Tonhon performs as Ophelia in *Ofélia, a travesti gorda*. Photo courtesy of Lenise Pinheiro.

Another example is As 3 uiaras de SP City, a play written by trans playwright Ave Terrena Alves and performed by trans actresses Verónica Valenttino and Danna Lisboa. The work stages the struggle for civil rights by proposing a reinterpretation of the past through the lens of issues that continue to affect trans people in contemporary Brazil. Alves suggests that historical forms of exclusion and violence persist in the present, and that meaningful social transformation depends on confronting these enduring legacies. In doing so, As 3 uiaras exposes the racist social structures that sustain the oppressive logic of transphobia, revealing what may be understood as an ethno-cis-centric order. This configuration can be seen as a direct consequence of the colonial foundations of cisnormativity.

Verónica Valenttino performs in *As 3 uiaras de SP City*. Photograph courtesy of Renato Mangolin.

The play also invites reflection on the relationship of Christianity and colonialism in Brazil, highlighting how Christian institutions and discourses have historically functioned as mechanisms of domination and social control. This critique is not unique to Alves’s work; the impact of Christian colonialism on Brazilian society has become a recurring theme in the artistic production of prominent Afro-Brazilian trans artists, including Ventura Profana, Castiel Vitorino Brasileiro, Alice Guél, and Linn da Quebrada. Through their diverse practices, these artists examine the intersections of race, gender, religion, and coloniality, contributing to broader critiques of normative structures in Brazilian societies.

This according to “Gender in danger: Transdanger people in performing arts in Brazil” by Dodi T.B. Leal (Theatre research international 46/3 [2021] 398–406; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-12171).

The first image in the post is of the singer and actor Danna Lisboa, performing in As 3 uiaras de SP City. Photo courtesy of Renato Mangolin.

International Day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition (23 August)

This Saturday, 23 August, is UNESCO’s International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, which seeks to “inscribe the tragedy of the slave trade in the memory of all peoples”. The date coincides with the 1791 uprising in Saint Domingue, today the Republic of Haiti, that so heavily impacted the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. In regions like the Caribbean, northern South America, and Brazil, music and culture have been deeply shaped by the historical conditions of African slavery and fusion and syncretization that arose from European colonialism. Today, the Afro-Latin musical roots of genres such as salsa, Cuban son, Brazilian samba and bossa nova, Dominican merengue, and Panamanian and Puerto Rican reggaetón, among many others, continue to echo the enduring legacy of slavery in the Americas.

To observe the International Day, read the entry on slavery in Ilan Stavans’s Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes, which traces the abhorrent practice globally, with a detailed section on the Haitian Revolution, the first and only successful slave rebellion to dismantle the plantation system and achieve political independence. The rebellion reverberated across the New World and sparked a wave of newfound consciousness and hope among Black populations throughout the Americas, while simultaneously triggering reactionary and often violent responses from European and criollo planters and other ruling elites.

*Prise de la Ravine-à-Couleuvres* (Capture of the Ravine-à-Couleuvres, 23 February 1802), by Karl Girardet, engraved by Jean-Jacques Outhwaite.

Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes provides an in-depth exploration of the rich and diverse world of Latin American music, examining its history, cultural significance, and the wide range of genres it encompasses. Spanning five centuries and 25 countries, the encyclopedia, covers the evolution of Latin music from its roots in Indigenous, African, and European traditions to its contemporary global influence. It offers detailed profiles of influential musicians, including iconic figures such as Tito Puente, Celia Cruz, Placido Domingo, and Carlos Santana, shedding light on their contributions to the development of Latin music and their lasting legacies. The two volumes delve into key genres like salsa, merengue, bachata, tango, and reggaetón, discussing their origins, stylistic characteristics, and cultural impact across different Latin American countries and communities. In addition to genre exploration, Latin music touches on broader themes of identity, migration, and the ways in which Latin music has become a vehicle for social and political expression. The encyclopedia’s 244 entries also include sociopolitical factors that have shaped Latin American music’s growth and dissemination. This is a key resource for music researchers looking to understand the musical traditions, key figures, and cultural contexts that have defined music in Latin America and its enduring global appeal.

Find the entry on slavery written by Ruthie Meadows in Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes located in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The first image is of Sexteto Habanero (circa 1925), an early Cuban son band from Havana, Cuba.

The improbable rise of Run the Jewels

In the history of rap music, the success of Killer Mike (Michael Render), a Black man from Atlanta, Georgia, and El-P (Jaime Meline), a white man from Brooklyn, New York, seems implausible. Yet, they’ve defied all odds, turning what should have been the twilight of their careers into the peak of their success. As the powerhouse duo Run the Jewels, El-P and Killer Mike have headlined global festivals, become action figures and Marvel comic characters, led a worldwide countercultural movement, and played significant roles in the last two U.S. presidential elections.

Their journey evokes a modern-day buddy movie. Filled with twists and triumphs, it mirrors the massive shifts in the music industry over the last 25 years–from the peak of the CD era to its decline and the rise of streaming platforms–and reflects the evolution of pop culture and its sociopolitical climate. From the surge of Afrofuturism and the fall of the Twin Towers to the emergence of the Black Lives Matter movement and Colin Kaepernick’s protest, these pivotal moments shaped how their growing friendship turned Killer Mike and El-P from underground solo acts into globally recognized icons.

Killer Mike (left) and El-P perform on NPR’s *Tiny Desk*.

Listen to the 10th anniversary edition of Run the Jewels’ first album here.

Killer Mike, the 39-year-old rapper and entrepreneur, commands attention with his powerful presence, blending raw talent with a unique perspective that sets him apart. His verses seamlessly navigate detailed street narratives, intense battle raps, sharp punchlines, and passionate political commentary. Killer Mike first gained widespread recognition as a protégé of Outkast, the iconic Atlanta rap duo that paved the way for Southern hip hop to earn international respect. As a member of the Dungeon Family, he got his big break with a standout feature on Snappin’ and trappin’, a track from OutKast’s 2000 album Stankonia. After a series of solo releases and mixtapes, he expanded his creative reach, contributing music and voicing a character on Frisky dingo, an animated series that marked the beginning of his collaboration with Cartoon Network’s Adult Swim. In 2012, Killer Mike dropped R.A.P. music, a fiery album that brought together his commanding presence with the menacing beats of El-P, a seasoned veteran of New York City’s independent hip hop scene.

El-P (left) and Killer Mike (right) perform during the 2019 All Points East Festival at Victoria Park in London. Photo by Robin Little.

El-P first made his mark as part of Company Flow, a group of sharp-tongued, anti-establishment lyricists who approached their tracks with the same rebellious energy as graffiti artists tagging subway cars. As the flagship act of Rawkus Records, a powerhouse of independent hip hop in the mid-1990s, Company Flow’s 1996 album Funcrusher plus became a cornerstone of underground hip hop. By the end of the decade, El-P, alongside his manager Amaechi Uzoigwe, launched the Definitive Jux label, with the intent to release Company Flow’s second album. However, before the project could come to fruition, the group split up. Despite this, the unfinished material was eventually reworked and became the foundation for El-P’s solo breakout, marking the start of his career as a solo artist and producer.

The unexpected collaboration between underground hip hop giants El-P and Killer Mike turned out to be a perfect fit. In 2013, the duo reunited to launch Run the Jewels, revamping the gritty, hard-hitting style of late-1980s and early-1990s hip hop legends like Ice Cube and EPMD. Through their groundbreaking releases, Killer Mike and El-P firmly established themselves as dominant forces in modern music, becoming influential voices in the soundscape of contemporary rap.

This according to Kill your masters: Run the Jewels and the world that made them by Jaap Van der Doelen (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2024; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 2024-15629).

Watch Run the Jewels perform on NPR’s Tiny Desk concerts here.

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Filed under Humor, Mass media, Music industry, Performers, Politics, Popular music

Tagged as El-P, Hip hop, Killer Mike, New York City, Politics, Popular culture, Popular music, Rap music, Run the Jewels, Southern rap, underground

by rilm | June 25, 2025 · 6:00 am

Extra Fancy’s visceral queercore as discursive space

In 1996, Atlantic Records released—and almost immediately abandoned—a queercore album that boldly asserted a fiercely aggressive, macho gay male identity. Extra Fancy’s Sinnerman tackled themes such as sadomasochism, violent retaliation against gay-bashing, and life with HIV, all filtered through a punk-driven sonic intensity that matched the raw aggression of its lyrics. Although the band’s work was overtly queer in content, only lead singer Brian Grillo was openly gay. Grillo’s commanding physicality, including his muscular frame, butch attire, shaved head, and confrontational stage presence, projected a radical gay male persona steeped in anger and defiance. His gravelly vocal delivery evoked the hardcore and alternative masculinity of Henry Rollins, Kurt Cobain, and Eddie Vedder–as he performed shirtless, pounding a fifty-gallon oil drum, owning the stage with visceral bravado. Nearly a decade later, Extra Fancy received near-iconic status in David Ciminelli and Ken Knox’s book Homocore: The loud and raucous rise of queer rock, even as the authors noted that Grillo “never had a desire to be anything other than a performer who rocked—regardless of his sexual orientation”.

Extra Fancy poses with fans. Photo: Extra Fancy Facebook page.

The surge of gay and lesbian visibility in 1990s popular culture revealed the limited discursive space within which queer identity was permitted to exist in mainstream U.S. society–a homonormative framework that Extra Fancy vehemently resisted. Brian Grillo’s representation of gay male identity served as a radical rejection of this structure. The band’s title track, Sinnerman, is a reinterpretation of the traditional gospel song Sinner man, originally recorded by The Weavers in the late 1950s and later popularized by Nina Simone’s iconic 1960s rendition. Once emblematic of the liberationist Christian ethos that fueled the civil rights movement, the song was repurposed by Extra Fancy to subvert more dogmatic religious narratives and to spotlight systemic inequality through a distinctly queer lens.

The “queer” in queercore signals identities that exist outside rigid heteronormative constructs, yet it does not imply a unified or cohesive community. As Jack Halberstam notes, “In mainstream gay, lesbian, and trans communities in the United States, battles rage about what group occupies the more transgressive or aggrieved position.” Queercore music often seeks to challenge binary understandings of gender and sexuality; however, the multiplicity of identities encompassed by the term makes it difficult–if not impossible–for any band or collective to serve as a definitive representative. This complexity is reflected in the musical output of the most celebrated queercore acts, whose styles are as varied as the identities they seek to express.

This according to “The erotics of an oil drum: Queercore, gay macho, and the defiant sexuality of Extra Fancy’s Sinnerman” by Kevin Schwandt (Women & music: A journal of gender and culture 13 [2009] 76–87; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2009-13027).

Asian American music teachers’ experiences

Asian Americans hold distinct positions across various professions, experiencing both significant underrepresentation in some fields and notable overrepresentation in others. The Asian population in the United States has grown substantially–an 88% increase over the last two decades. Despite this growth, disparities persist, with Asian Americans remaining underrepresented in numerous sectors. For instance, they comprise only 2% of teachers in the public school system. Some argue that Asian Americans have overcome racial discrimination by embodying the so-called “model minority” stereotype, often associated with higher levels of affluence and educational attainment compared to other minority groups, such as Black and Hispanic communities.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, a troubling trend emerged, with one in six hate crimes against Asian Americans involving physical violence and another one in six incidents reflecting social exclusion or avoidance. Additionally, more than one in nine cases suggested potential civil rights violations, such as workplace discrimination. Despite these challenges, the role of Asian American educators in advancing social justice remains largely understudied. While multicultural music education has occasionally incorporated their perspectives, comprehensive research on their experiences as minorities is limited. Applying the lens of Asian critical theory (AsianCrit) uncovers some of the distinct obstacles faced by Asian American music teachers and evaluates their impact on educational practices and policies.

In this context, educators of color navigate a dual challenge: resisting stereotypes tied to their heritage while preserving their cultural identities in educational environments that often push conformity to dominant white cultural norms. Building on critical race theory (CRT), S.D. Museus and J.S. Iftikar (2014) developed AsianCrit, a framework that merges CRT with insights from Asian American studies to address the complexities of Asian American experiences. AsianCrit has revealed the model minority myth as a tool of racial subjugation and illustrated how Asian Americans are strategically positioned in political debates, such as those surrounding affirmative action. The AsianCrit framework is deliberately pan-ethnic, recognizing that, despite their diverse backgrounds, Asian Americans experience racialization as a collective group. This shared racialization manifests through common challenges faced across Asian communities in the U.S., including racial isolation in educational settings, hostility, assimilation pressures, and racial silencing. By prioritizing race over ethnicity, AsianCrit facilitates a deeper exploration of how white supremacy and systemic racism shape broader racial dynamics, providing a critical lens for analyzing Asian American experiences.

Through the AsianCrit lens, racial dynamics reveal that many Asian American music educators struggle with identity and belonging in a system that often renders them invisible. The deeply ingrained perception of Asian Americans as perpetual outsiders challenges their legitimacy as Americans. Establishing affinity networks is not merely beneficial but essential for the empowerment of Asian American communities in educational spaces. These networks serve as more than safe havens–they act as catalysts for resistance and change, fostering solidarity and transforming dialogue into actionable progress and transformative action. Moreover, such networks should be integrated into educational leadership at multiple levels to promote culturally responsive teaching and dismantle monolithic narratives within curricula.

This according to “In/visible voices: Investigating Asian American music teachers’ experiences through the lens of AsianCrit” by Katy Ieong Cheng Ho Weatherly (Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education [spring 2024] 25–46; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2024-8288).

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Filed under Music education, North America, Pedagogy, Politics, Theory

Tagged as Asian Americans, AsianCrit, cultural identity, educators, model minority, Music education, networks, pan-ethnic, Pedagogy, racism, stereotypes

by rilm | May 26, 2025 · 6:00 am

Riot grrrl zines: Translating experience into expertise

The rise of the riot grrrl movement can be traced to musicians and zine creators Tobi Vail, Allison Wolfe, Molly Neuman, and Kathleen Hanna–founders of the bands Bratmobile and Bikini Kill, respectively. From its inception, riot grrrl was ideologically rooted in the concept of a girl-led collective and actively resisted the elevation of individual figureheads. Instead, its founders encouraged young women to create their own music, art, writing, and forms of protest. This DIY ethos empowered those who had never played an instrument or written creatively to pick up guitars or pens and express themselves. Women punk enthusiasts crafted fanzines that quickly evolved into interactive platforms for radical political dialogue and genre-defying creative expression by self-identified riot grrrls, fostering a vibrant culture of subversion and solidarity.

Through their music and textual productions, riot grrrls launched a pointed critique of capitalism and consumer culture while foregrounding feminist issues such as rape, assault, and the physical and psychological abuse of women. Riot grrrl zines frequently featured confessional autofiction, satirical graphic art, exchanges between creators and readers, and discussions of gender and emerging queer theory. This loosely connected, nomadic community, typically composed of individuals between the ages of 13 and 25, often experienced marginalization and alienation from the mainstream cultures in which they lived. Zines played a critical mediating role, facilitating consciousness-raising encounters between writers and readers that transcended regional and national boundaries. These exchanges fostered a sense of intimate solidarity–or, in riot grrrl terms, “girl love”–among participants. The movement’s emphasis on revealing lived, personal experience as a marker of authenticity echoes strands of second-wave feminism, particularly those that championed realistic and autobiographical writing as key tools for feminist consciousness-raising.

As Bikini Kill’s Kathleen Hanna explains,

“In writing [zines], I have had to think a lot about how to share information without acting all bossy or being condescending. … Just cuz I’m an addict/alcoholic (what-fuckin-evah) doesn’t mean I think I can speak for everyone in terms of addiction. It seems to me that each addict functions within his/her own context in terms of race, gender, location, class, personality, access, etc. . . . So it would be ridiculous for me to try and write a ‘manifesto’ or a ‘universal account’ of how addiction works.”

Here, Hanna anticipates and pre-empts external critique that she speaks from a privileged, universalist position as a white woman. Crucially, however, this acknowledgement follows her revelation of personal experience—and indeed, her claimed expertise—regarding addiction. The culture of privilege-checking cultivated in riot grrrl zines, while rooted in a desire for accountability and inclusivity, gives rise to what Mimi Thi Nguyen (2012) describes as a “troubling politics”. In this framework, traumatic experience—when reframed as the product of systemic oppression—serves to bolster claims of authentic marginality, effectively translating lived experience into a form of expertise. This dynamic complicates the relationship between personal narrative, political authority, and identity within the riot grrrl movement.

This according to “Killing ourselves is not subversive: Riot grrrl from zine to screen and the commodification of female transgression” by Emily Spiers (Women: A cultural review 26/1-2 [2015] 1–21; RILM Abstracts with Full Text, 2015-83472).

In the video below, zine publishers and artists describe riot grrrl (and zines in particular) as their entry point to different forms of activism and expression in the 1990s–the video was part of the Alien she exhibition at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco.

Music and the Vietnam War

Following the fall of Sài Gòn (now Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh) on 30 April 1975, the experiences and contributions of South Vietnamese war veterans were largely erased from public memory. In recent years, efforts to address this erasure have included the rediscovery of pre-1975 Vietnamese music, particularly Nhạc vàng (“yellow music”), which refers to popular songs of South Vietnam, many of which were composed before 1975. Capturing the realities of war and the lives of Vietnamese soldiers (người lính), Nhạc vàng offers a valuable historical perspective, shedding light on the struggles and hardships faced by South Vietnamese soldiers. Deeply embedded in the Vietnamese diaspora, its enduring melodies provide a crucial link to their ongoing struggles and memories within today’s geopolitical landscape. Over time, Vietnamese music—ranging from contemporary popular songs to poignant war ballads—has evolved into a powerful tool for preserving the voices of those silenced by history. For many South Vietnamese veterans, music became an emotional refuge, helping them navigate fading nostalgia and the painful memories of the Vietnam War.

Pre-1975 Nhạc vàng album cover art. Courtesy of Saigoneer.com

For many U.S. soldiers, popular music played a crucial role in shaping their experiences of the war. A Kentucky rifleman who spent his tour trekking through the central highlands of Vietnam recalled Nancy Sinatra‘s These boots are made for walkin’ as a defining song. A tunnel rat, who used to blow smoke into Viet Cong tunnels, remembers Jimi Hendrix’s Purple haze. For an African American marine reeling from the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., it was Aretha Franklin’s Chain of fools. And for countless others, songs like Country Joe and the Fish’s I feel like I’m fixin’ to die, Creedence Clearwater Revival’s Who’ll stop the rain, and The Animals’ We gotta get out of this place became anthems of their war experience. Popular music was central to the American experience in Vietnam, bridging the gap between troops and the home front, while providing a soundtrack to the emotional complexity of the war they were thrust into. Music was an often overlooked yet crucial part of the conflict, influencing the experiences and memories of every group of Vietnam veterans.

Music also played a crucial role in shaping public perception of the Vietnam War in the United States, as songs reflected both support and opposition to the conflict. Unlike the professionally produced music of World War II, Vietnam-era songs were embraced by the public and became central to cultural gatherings such as folk festivals, college dorm sing-alongs, and peace rallies. The war exposed deep societal divisions, with music serving as an emotional outlet for discontent, anger, and the desire for peace–contrasting sharply with the patriotic themes of previous conflicts. Both anti-war and pro-war movements used music to express their sentiments, with supporters of the war favoring country music while opponents turned to folk and rock to amplify their voices. The powerful emotions embedded in these songs made the Vietnam War distinct in its musical and cultural impact.

Furthermore, activist musicians like Phil Ochs (pictured above) provided a more nuanced and critical perspective on the war than what was typically found in mainstream media. His songs often addressed controversial aspects of the Vietnam War that were otherwise overlooked or suppressed. Ochs’ music was raw and uncompromising, standing out among his contemporaries. Despite being a key figure in the 1960s anti-war movement and a prolific writer of topical songs, Ochs remained less commercially recognized than other folk icons like Bob Dylan or Joan Baez. His most productive years coincided with the peak of U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia, a time when his popular music served as a powerful critique of the war.

This according to “Échos rescapés: Redocumenter la musique vietnamienne d’avant 1975–Pistes sonores historiques et mémorielles [Rescued echoes: Redocumenting Vietnamese music from before 1975–Historical and memorial soundtracks]” by Kathy Nguyen, Lieux de mémoire sonore: Des sons pour survivre, des sons pour tuer, ed. by Luis Velasco-Pufleau and Laëtitia Atlani-Duault (Paris: Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 2021, 137–172; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-107659), and We gotta get out of this place: The soundtrack of the Vietnam War by Doug Bradley (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2015; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 2015-18652).

The 50th anniversary of the fall of Sài Gòn, marking the end of the Vietnam War, was celebrated on 30 April 2025.

The track below exemplifies the sound of pre-1975 Nhạc vàng.

Below is a link to Phil Ochs performing on Canadian television on 27 September 1965.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPFl8pOx9Zo

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Filed under Asia, North America, Performers, Politics, Popular music, Reception, World music

Tagged as conflict, Memory, Nhạc vàng, nostalgia, Popular music, Protest music, Vietnam, Vietnam War, war ballads

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