Intangible cultural heritage: An annotated bibliography

In celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) on 17 October, RILM presents a selective annotated bibliography from over 1,000 writings highlighting influential scholarly writings on the subject. Spanning topics from cultural politics and policy to preservation strategies and research methodologies, the selection underscores the global impact of ICH practices on musical traditions–particularly through efforts to rescue, preserve, and perform them. ICH has increasingly been used in music studies to describe the nonmaterial aspects of cultural traditions that are passed down through music, dance, oral traditions, and rituals. According to UNESCO, ICH encompasses “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills–as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith–that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage.” Communities across the globe recognize living heritage as a core part of their cultural identity, continuously recreated in response to their environment and historical context.

Examples of ICH include oral traditions (languages, folklore, storytelling), performing arts (music, dance, theater, puppetry), social practices, and rituals (festivals, religious ceremonies, rites of passage), traditional craftsmanship, and knowledge systems related to nature or cosmology. ICH is not limited to inherited traditions; it also encompasses contemporary cultural expressions in both rural and urban settings. These practices foster a sense of identity and continuity, support social cohesion, and contribute to sustainable development and economic resilience, ensuring their transmission to future generations.

Puppet theater of Slovakia and Czechia. Photo courtesy of UNESCO.

In the field of music studies, ICH underscores the significance of preserving and documenting musical traditions that are transmitted orally or through performance rather than written or recorded forms. These traditions encompass folk music, traditional song structures, and distinctive musical techniques rooted in local cultural contexts. Recognizing its growing relevance, RILM adopted ICH as an indexing headword in 2022. Initially applied to musical instruments, the term has since expanded to include the preservation of nonmaterial cultural objects, aligning with UNESCO’s definition. RILM now uses ICH to index performing arts traditions across various countries and to document practices related to conservation, restoration, cultural policy, festivals, language, and thematic areas such as collective memory and cultural sustainability.

This selective annotated bibliography reflects the intersection of ICH imperatives within RILM’s mission to document, safeguard, and preserve the world’s knowledge about all musical traditions, and to make this knowledge accessible to research and performance communities worldwide via digital collections and advanced tools. RILM’s collections include the music scholarship of all countries, in all languages, and across all disciplinary and cultural boundaries, thereby fostering research in the arts, humanities, sciences, and social sciences.

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Miguel Molina, Blanca de, et al., ed. Music as intangible cultural heritage: Economic, cultural and social identity (Cham: Springer, 2021). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-13178]

Abstract: Offers an interdisciplinary perspective and presents various case studies on music as intangible cultural heritage, highlighting the importance and functionality of music to stimulate social innovation and entrepreneurship. To understand the relationship between immaterial and material uses and inherent cultural landscapes, this volume analyzes the symbolic, political, and economic dimensions of music. The case studies highlight the continuity and current functionality of these artistic forms of expression as well as their lively and changing character in continuous transformation.

You, Ziying. Folk literati, contested tradition, and heritage in contemporary China: Incense is kept burning (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2020-59339]

Abstract: Explores the role of folk literati in shaping, preserving, and negotiating local cultural heritage. Building on the concept of the elite literati—a well-documented pre-modern Chinese social class influential in cultural production—the research defines folk literati as individuals proficient in classical Chinese, deeply familiar with local traditions, and capable of articulating them through writing. These figures serve as custodians of cultural continuity, a notion locally expressed through the vernacular phrase, “incense is kept burning.” Centered on several villages in Hongtong county, Shanxi province, the study employs oral interviews, participant observation, and textual analysis to reveal how folk literati sustain traditional practices and perpetuate stigmatized beliefs within their communities. The research highlights the contributions of eight folk literati who have actively reinterpreted and negotiated worship traditions surrounding the ancient sage-kings Yao and Shun, along with Ehuang and Nüying–Yao’s daughters and Shun’s wives. Their complex interpersonal dynamics have influenced the evolution of local myths, legends, and historical narratives, shaping the preservation of tradition in meaningful ways. These practices are examined within the broader framework of Chinese cultural policy and UNESCO’s ICH program, illustrating how global and national discourses intersect with grassroots efforts to maintain and redefine living heritage.

Qi, Yi, ed. Xiaogu chunshe: Jing Jin Ji yinyue lei feiwuzhi wenhua yichan jicheng—Xiongxian juan. Xiaogu chunshe: Jing Jin Ji yinyue lei feiwuzhi wenhua yichan jicheng (Baoding: Hebei Daxue Chubanshe/Hebei University Press; Shijiazhuang: Fangyuan Dianzi Yinxiang Chubanshe, 2020). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2020-68880]

Abstract: The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region boasts a rich array of intangible cultural heritage (ICH), with numerous musical traditions listed on the national ICH registry. Since 2015, a collaborative team of scholars from Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei has undertaken comprehensive ethnomusicological fieldwork, focusing on the documentation of the region’s musical ICH in Xiong county, Hebei province. Their research, grounded in principles of authenticity, thoroughness, and systematic documentation, covers a wide range of traditional musical forms. This includes folk instrumental ensembles like yinyuehui, nanyuehui, shifanhui, chaozihui, and chuidahui; quyi traditions such as Hebei bangzi, pingju, jingju, and local genres like shangsidiao and yunchehui; as well as traditions like xihe dagu and traditional song-and-dance forms including gaoqiao, yangge, wulong, and wushi. Their extensive collection of performance videos, vocal renditions, ritual documentation, interviews, and images of musicians, instruments, scores, and props–alongside written materials–offers a vivid snapshot of traditional music in contemporary folk life. Drawing on this first-hand fieldwork, the scholars have organized their findings into research papers and field notes, supplemented by documentary sources. These materials collectively present a true representation of traditional music, shedding light on its significant artistic and cultural value.

Akagawa, Natsuko and Laurajane Smith. Safeguarding intangible heritage: Practices and politics (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018).  [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2018-57263]

Abstract: The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage came into force in 2006 (after the 2003 Convention), framing the international and national practices and policies associated with intangible cultural heritage. These practices and policies are critically examined, providing an accessible account of the different ways in which intangible cultural heritage has been defined and managed in both national and international contexts. The concept and practices of safeguarding are complicated and often contested, and there is a need for international debate about the meaning, nature, and value of heritage and what it means to safeguard it. A significant cross section of ideas and practices is provided by some of the key academics and practitioners working in the area, whose areas of expertise span anthropology, law, heritage studies, linguistics, archaeology, museum studies, folklore, architecture, Indigenous studies, and history. An overarching analysis of international policy and practice critically frames case studies analyzing practices from a range of countries, including Australia, Canada, China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Kyrgyzstan, New Zealand, Taiwan, the U.K., and Zimbabwe.

Broclain, Elsa, Benoît Haug, and Pénélope Patrix, eds. Transposition: Musique et sciences sociales (2019): Musique: Patrimoine immatériel? [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2019-24678]

French Abstract: La musique occupe une place de choix au sein du Patrimoine Culturel Immatériel (PCI) de l’humanité tel que le répertorie l’UNESCO depuis sa Convention de sauvegarde de 2003. Plus largement, au-delà des Nations-Unies, le « patrimoine immatériel » semble être devenu le paradigme dominant dans les actions de patrimonialisation et de valorisation des pratiques musicales à l’échelle internationale. Devant l’ampleur de ce phénomène, il s’agit d’engager une approche transnationale et comparative des rapports entre musique et « patrimoine immatériel ». En s’intéressant aux façons dont cette notion (et/ou l’appareil patrimonial qui l’accompagne) est mise en oeuvre, reformulée ou contestée sur le terrain, et à ses interactions avec d’autres catégories et modalités d’action en usage, ce numéro de Transposition propose donc de se demander: que fait le PCI à la musique et, inversement, que fait la musique au PCI? La majorité des études réunies ici s’intéressent à des pratiques inscrites sur les listes de l’UNESCO, qui font l’objet de programmes de sauvegarde entamés depuis plusieurs années déjà. Ces situations « post-patrimoniales » y sont examinées dans leur diversité. D’autres articles nous plongent dans le vif du montage d’un dossier d’inscription, et s’interrogent sur les difficultés et les possibles conséquences de la mise en patrimoine d’une pratique musicale. Certaines des pratiques étudiées ne sont pas candidates auprès de l’UNESCO, mais sont inscrites dans des régimes de patrimonialisation locaux qui reprennent les désignations et certains modes d’action et outils afférents au PCI. Enfin, la voix est donnée à des actions de patrimonialisation distinctes ou contestataires. La singularité de la musique au sein du PCI s’esquisse alors sur trois axes principaux: celui de l’« immatérialité » de la musique prise dans ces processus de patrimonialisation ; celui des rapports spécifiques qui s’y articulent entre musique, politique et territoire, notamment au regard de pratiques subalternes ; enfin, celui du caractère performatif des constructions patrimoniales en jeu, saisies comme des fictions opératoires.

English abstract: Music holds a key place in the intangible cultural heritage of humanity as inventoried by UNESCO since its 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the ICH. More broadly, beyond the United Nations, intangible heritage seems to have become the dominant paradigm in processes of heritage making and the recognition of music practices at the international level. Given the vast scope of this phenomenon, the aim here is to initiate a transnational, comparative approach to the relations between music and intangible heritage. Looking at the ways in which this notion–or the heritage apparatus that comes with it–is implemented, reformulated or contested in the field, and at its interactions with other categories and modes of action in use, we are invited to ask: what does ICH do to music and, conversely, what does music do to ICH? Most of the case studies here address the practices inscribed on the UNESCO lists, which are the subject of safeguarding programs already in effect for some years. These “post-heritage” contexts are analyzed in their diversity, while other discussions delve into the complexities of preparing ICH applications, revealing the challenges and implications of formalizing musical traditions as heritage. Some practices, though not UNESCO-listed, engage with local heritage-making systems that adopt ICH terminology and tools. Additionally, the study highlights alternative heritage-making efforts, including those used as forms of protest or resistance. The unique position of music in ICH can be summed up in three recurring themes: the intangibility of music caught up in these heritage-making processes; the specific intersections between music, power dynamics, and territory in this context, particularly regarding subaltern practices; and the performative nature of the heritage constructions at play, conceived as operative fictions.

Meeker, Lauren. Sounding out heritage: Cultural politics and the social practice of quan họ folk song in northern Vietnam. Southeast Asia: Politics, meaning, memory (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2013). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2013-10998]

Abstract: Explores the cultural politics that have shaped the recent history and evolving practice of quan họ, a distinctive style of folk song originating in Bắc Ninh province, northern Vietnam. Tracing its transformation over the past 60 years–from a village-based tradition to a professionalized performance art–the research offers a richly contextualized ethnographic account of the quan họ soundscape. By weaving together analyses of folk music, cultural nationalism, and heritage discourse, it reveals how quan họ has been redefined through shifting social practices and institutional recognition. Village practitioners–ordinary individuals who sang quan họ for personal and communal enjoyment–have had to navigate growing external attention and their designation as “living treasures”. Meanwhile, professional performers, with distinct styles and representational approaches, have been integrated into the quan họ landscape to promote Bắc Ninh’s cultural identity on a national stage. The study highlights the nuanced politics of rescuing, preserving, and performing folk music, demonstrating how traditions can be consciously reframed as heritage and elevated to national icon status. Quan họ’s inscription on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2009 further complicated the dynamic between village and professional expressions, raising critical questions about authority, representation, and authenticity in international heritage discourse. Ultimately, this research illustrates how cultural politics shape the meanings and practices of quan họ, showing that a tradition may carry multiple significances for different communities.

Quan họ folk songs of Bắc Ninh province, Vietnam.

Norton, Barley and Naomi Matsumoto, eds. Music as heritage: Historical and ethnographic perspectives. SOAS musicology (Abingdon: Routledge, 2019). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2019-714]

Abstract: As economic, technological, and cultural change gathers pace across the world, issues of music heritage and sustainability have become ever more pressing. Discourse on intangible cultural heritage has developed in complex ways in recent years, and musical practices have been transformed by safeguarding agendas. Taking stock of these transformations, new ethnographic and historical perspectives are brought together to bear on encounters with music heritage. The cultural politics, ethics, and audiovisual representation of music heritage; the methods and consequences of music transmission across national borders; and the perennial issues of revival, change and innovation are evaluated. UNESCO’s 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage provides an essential reference point for studies of music heritage. However, there are also important spheres of musical activity that lie outside of UNESCO’s reach and the reasons why some repertoires of music are chosen for safeguarding while others are not. Some practices of art music in Europe explored here have received little attention despite being susceptible to endangerment. Developing a comparative framework that cuts across genre distinctions and disciplinary boundaries, the study explores how music cultures are being affected by heritage discourse and the impact of international and national policies on grassroots music practices.

Pätzold, Uwe U. “Turutlah ilmu padi: Semakin berisi semakin merunduk”–Über den “Reifungsprozess” des traditionellen Pencak Silat zum neuem Bestandteil des UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage-Weltkulturerbes”, KITA: Das Magazin der Deutsch-Indonesischen Gesellschaft II/3 (2020) 173–184. [RILM Abstracts of Music of Literature, 2020-67353]

German Abstract: Am 12. Dezember 2019 wurden sowohl die „Traditions of Pencak Silat“ (Tradisi Pencak Silat) Indonesiens als auch das “Silat Malaysia” (Seni Persilatan Melayu) in die „Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” (ICH)-Programm der UNESCO aufgenommen. Der Bericht zeigt, mit einem Fokus auf den indonesischen Antrag, detailliert auf wie es hierzu kam, welche Erfordernisse, Wünsche, Hoffnungen, Ideen, Initiativen, Reflektionen und Verantwortlichkeiten seitens der Träger in den jeweiligen indonesischen Kulturen mit der schließlichen Anerkennung seitens der UNESCO einhergehen, und welche Bedeutung diese Anerkennung für alle Beteiligten haben kann. Der Autor hat diesen Prozess als passiver Beobachter seit 2014 begleitet.

English Abstract: On 12 December 2019, Indonesia’s traditions of pencak silat and silat were inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The process leading to this recognition is explored, focusing on Indonesia’s application and the various aspects involved–such as the requirements, hopes, ideas, initiatives, reflections, and responsibilities of the cultural stakeholders. This culminated in UNESCO’s acknowledgment of pencak silat as a vital part of Indonesia’s intangible cultural heritage. The significance of this recognition is highlighted, not only for the communities directly involved but also for the broader cultural landscape of Indonesia.

Indonesian pencak silat practitioners. Photo courtesy of UNESCO.
A short video describing the traditions of pencak silat.

Planke, Terje, Anne Kristin Moe, and Thomas Michael Walle, eds. By og bygd 47 (2018): Immateriell kulturarv på museum. [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2018-52212]

Abstract: Explores how Norwegian museums engage with intangible cultural heritage, particularly in traditional music and dance. Historically, museums have been closely tied to the preservation of tangible cultural materials, yet they now play a growing role in safeguarding intangible heritage as well. The impact of the UNESCO 2003 Convention’s introduction of the concept of intangible cultural heritage on museum practices in Norway is discussed. While there are no definitive criteria for determining which cultural expressions should be protected, the notion of heritage increasingly emphasizes intergenerational transmission. The case studies also highlight a linguistic complication: the term “intangible” has been translated into Norwegian as “immaterial”, creating a problematic dichotomy. Cultural expressions, though not always physically fixed, possess form and substance; objects and crafts often embody ideas and knowledge. In this sense, the museum’s evolving role in protecting and educating differs from its previous focus on preserving and conserving. By repositioning practitioners as custodians of cultural competence, the 2003 Convention marks a significant shift in the museum’s authority. It is no longer assumed that expertise resides solely within the institution, even though many museums have long collaborated with skilled culture bearers.

Roda, Jessica. “Des Judéo-espagnols à la machine unesquienne: Enjeux et défis de la patrimonialisation musicale”, Cahiers d’ethnomusicologie XXIV (2011) 123–141. [RILM Abstracts of Music of Literature, 2011-25833]

French abstract: À travers l’expérience d’une « participation observante » au sein de la section du Patrimoine culturel immatériel (PCI) au siège de l’Unesco à Paris, cet article vise à saisir les enjeux éthiques de cette nouvelle machine patrimoniale institutionnelle qui fait tant couler d’encre. Les débats et les discussions qui animent le processus autour de la liste représentative de la Convention de 2003 pour la sauvegarde du PCI sont mis en exergue, en prenant à témoin la première réunion de l’Organe subsidiaire qui a eu lieu en mai 2009. Plusieurs tensions et paradoxes de l’entreprise patrimoniale émergent, notamment les controverses autour de la notion de patrimoine, l’utilitarisme de la culture, et l’évidente modification du statut des pratiques culturelles qui acquièrent le label UNESCO.

English abstract: Draws on participant observation within the intangible cultural heritage sector at UNESCO headquarters in Paris to examine the ethical complexities of an increasingly prominent institutional patrimonial framework. Anchored in the deliberations surrounding the Representative List established by the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, the research focuses particularly on the inaugural meeting of the subsidiary committee held in May 2009. Through this vantage point, the study reveals the tensions and contradictions embedded in the patrimonialization process–highlighting debates over the definition of heritage, the instrumentalization of culture, and the transformative impact of UNESCO recognition on the status and meaning of cultural practices.

Howard, Keith D. ed. Music as intangible cultural heritage: Policy, ideology, and practice in the preservation of East Asian traditions. SOAS musicology series (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2012-6417]

Abstract: Examines the policy frameworks, ideological underpinnings, and practical approaches to the preservation and promotion of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) in East Asia. For the first time, Japan, Korea, China, and Taiwan—pioneering states in legislating and institutionalizing Indigenous traditions—are analyzed collectively. The growing urgency to safeguard ICH, amplified by increasing UNESCO involvement, reflects a regional response to the perceived erosion of cultural diversity driven by globalization, modernization, urbanization, and mass media proliferation. The research offers a foundational overview of state-level policies and practices related to musical ICH in each country, complemented by a series of ethnographically grounded case studies. These include traditions ranging from Confucian ritual and Kam big song to the Okinawan sanshin, illustrating how policy implementation has shaped musical heritage. Drawing on extensive fieldwork, the case studies present both insider and outsider perspectives, critically engaging with the intersections of policy, ideology, and practice.

Hafstein, Valdimar Tr. Making intangible heritage: El condor pasa and other stories from UNESCO (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018). [RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2018-54282]

Abstract: Recounts the development of UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) Convention through the lived experiences of a folklorist and official delegate, offering an ethnographic perspective that moves beyond formal narratives. It reveals the institutional dynamics of UNESCO, the evolving concept of ICH, and their global implications. In addition to accounts of compromise and solidarity, the research exposes the behind-the-scenes diplomacy—alliances forged and dissolved, moments of confrontation and resistance—that shaped both the 2003 Convention and the conceptual framework of intangible heritage. The study explores the internal narratives circulating within UNESCO about the origins of ICH, examining how these stories construct coherence, highlight contrasts, and serve as guiding frameworks for action at both international and local levels. By viewing UNESCO through an ethnographic lens, the research demonstrates how folklore concepts migrate beyond academia, influencing global policy and reshaping how communities understand and enact their cultural practices. Case studies range from the Jemaa el-Fna marketplace in Marrakech to the Ise shrine in Japan, illustrating the multifaceted outcomes of safeguarding intangible heritage. These include the creation of heritage lists, the revitalization of festivals, the emergence of new community identities, and the orchestration of cultural difference in contemporary societies. The study critically engages with both the positive and problematic outcomes of heritage-making, offering a nuanced account of how global frameworks intersect with local societies.

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Functions of the kidiu in East Malaysia

The kidiu (pictured above) is a unique aerophone in Malaysian folk music, specifically a bullroarer, which is a type of free aerophone that lacks an air column or closed air reservoir. Used by the Kenyah-Badang ethnic group in the Upper Rejang River region of Sarawak, the kidiu is typically played in small ensembles of two or three bullroarers to create melodies. The kidiu consists of a flat, oval disc made from wood or bamboo, with precise dimensions–at least ten centimeters in length, about eight to ten centimeters in width, and two to three centimeters in thickness. The disc is attached to a string, which is connected to a bamboo pole with a handle, with both the string and bamboo pole being approximately the same length.

A Kenyah dancer.

The player holds the bamboo pole by its handle and swings the kidiu disc quickly through the air, generating swirling air currents that produce distinct short notes. These notes vary based on the size of the disc and the speed at which it is swung. Typically, two or more players use differently sized kidiu discs, swinging them at specific intervals to create a range of notes, depending on the strength and direction of their swings–either forward, backward, or in a circular motion. Played in an interlocking pattern, the two or three kidiu discs produce repeating short melodic phrases as long as the players continue swinging them.

Kenyah kidiu. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

Initially, the kidiu was used in rice paddies to scare away pests like birds, mice, and insects that threatened the rice crops. Over time, however, it evolved into a musical instrument used for entertainment among the residents of the longhouse.

This according to the featured article on the music of Malaysia by Patricia Matusky in MGG Online.

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Mambo’s enduring appeal

The mambo is characterized by short, syncopated rhythmic patterns–the saxophone typically sets the tempo, while the brass instruments carry the melody. Danced by couples, either fully or slightly separated, the mambo is sometimes described as a variant of the rumba, though it incorporates forward and backward steps. Interestingly, the mambo was codified not in Cuba, but in the United States. The key difference between the original danzón-mambo and the mambo lies in the introduction of a new rhythm and, more importantly, the fusion of Cuban music with compositional elements drawn from big band jazz, as seen in the works of René Hernández, Bebo Valdés, and Pérez Prado. In 1948, the Cuban pianist and composer Pérez Prado relocated to Mexico City, where he formed his own orchestra, which he conducted while dancing and singing, and adding his signature vocal grunts to his performances. With his band, Prado helped define the structure of the mambo, releasing his biggest hits with RCA. Following the success of these records, he embarked on a tour of the United States.

Pérez Prado

Pérez Prado’s music and dance style also gained widespread popularity in Latin America, especially through his appearances in numerous Mexican films during the early 1950s. As a result, he quickly earned the title of the “King of Mambo”. As the mambo gained traction across the Americas, different regional styles began to emerge. In New York, artists like Machito and his Afro-Cubans (pictured at the beginning of this post), Tito Puente, and Tito Rodríguez helped shape the genre’s evolution. Mambo became a mainstream sensation, especially with the release of Papa loves mambo (1954) by Perry Como, which was followed by covers from iconic artists like Nat King Cole and Bing Crosby.

While the popularity of mambo seemed to decline after the rise of the cha cha cha, it remained a lasting cultural force in certain places. Mambo became much more than just a syncopated rhythm or a new style of dancing—it evolved into a cultural phenomenon that left a significant impact on popular culture. The genre found particular success in cinema, especially in the soundtracks of various popular films, including the 1954 film Mambo, directed by Robert Rossen. Mambo’s influence continued to grow in Europe, especially after its association with Federico Fellini’s iconic 1960 film La dolce vita; mambo also appeared in the first act of West side story (1957) by Leonard Bernstein.

Promotional poster for the 1954 film Mambo, directed by Robert Rossen.

In more recent years, mambo’s enduring appeal can be seen in Pink Martini’s 1997 song No hay problema, which incorporates mambo rhythms, as well as Lou Bega’s 1999 hit Mambo no. 5, which sparked a pop revival of the genre. Mambo even found a modern twist in 2021, with DJ Steve Aoki, singer Willy William, and Italian rapper Sfera Ebbasta collaborating on the track Mambo, blending the rhythm into a dance/electronic style (listen to the track below).

This according to the article of the week in DEUMM Online.

Related posts in Bibliolore:

https://bibliolore.org/2016/12/11/perez-prado-and-mambo/

https://bibliolore.org/2021/10/04/cubas-tonadas-trinitarias/

https://bibliolore.org/2018/09/13/cubas-corneta-china/

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Filed under Dance, Performers, Popular music, World music

Cassettes as sound archives of the early Colombian punk scene

Cassette tapes played a pivotal role in democratizing music consumption, empowering independent creation and distribution–especially in genres like punk and rap. Their portability and low cost made them powerful tools for circulating ideas and challenging dominant cultural narratives. Though the music industry feared their potential for piracy, cassettes did more than any previous technology to globalize music access. In the Global South, where major labels maintained near-monopolies, cassettes enabled the spread of music that held little commercial appeal for corporate interests, fostering the emergence of new genres in the process.

Cassettes played a vital role in the global ascent of genres like hip hop, punk, and extreme metal, emerging as the preferred medium for lo-fi and experimental artists. Their raw sound quality and DIY accessibility made them indispensable to underground scenes, allowing musicians to bypass industry gatekeepers and connect directly with listeners across borders. This cultural significance was captured in the inaugural 2019 issue of El sótano: Memorias punk Medallo, a fanzine documenting the punk movement in Medellín, Colombia during the 1980s and 1990s. The issue features vivid recollections from musicians and fans, reflecting on the cassette tapes (casetes) that preserved their sound and spirit.

According to the zine, in Medellín, casetes were the loyal companions of punk’s rebellious roar, echoing through the dark, decaying streets where the movement thrived. Slipped into pockets or tucked inside worn jackets, each tape bore a personal imprint–amplifying the raw realities of life on the margins. In this landscape of resistance, punk forged its own inventive forms of defiance. The cassette, more than a plastic medium, became a vessel of sonic rebellion, flooding the streets with noise, and confronting the very society that sought to silence it.

Today, casetes endure as potent memory devices–resonant artifacts of scenes that thrived on the cassette’s portability and resilience. As Patricia Arenas, a Medellin punk musician recalled, “Cassettes were everything to punk–they were the gateway to discovering bands and the soundtrack that traveled from one neighborhood to another. Back then, we recorded our own tapes and shared them with others. It was a simple act, but it carried a kind of mysticism: having a cassette and a pen to label it, to mark it with our own touch, and to know exactly what we were listening to.”

Ana Loaiza, another musician from Medellín, recalls the deep personal connection she formed with cassette tapes, each one carrying its own memory. “When I started getting into music, I lived and breathed to get cassettes,” she says. “They’re part of every rocker’s history in Medellín–we used to steal them from our parents.” Loaiza still treasures her collection, many of which remain in pristine condition. Protective of her tapes, she rarely lent them out. For her, it was a ritual: carefully labeling each cassette, writing out lyrics by hand, and using special pens reserved just for that purpose. These tapes weren’t just music–they were artifacts of identity, rebellion, and belonging.

This according to El sótano: Memorias punk Medallo. Find it in the RILM Archive of Popular Music Magazines.

Related posts in Bibliolore:

https://bibliolore.org/2019/10/17/the-apollo-11-mixtape/

https://bibliolore.org/2016/02/04/punks-sacred-clowns/

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Filed under Music magazines, Popular music, South America

Music and the status of women in Igbo society

Although Igbo women in Nigeria come from diverse socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, they share common experiences regarding how their gender is socially classified. In many cases, they face a pervasive sense of powerlessness rooted in gender inequality, alongside widespread marginalizing and discriminatory practices that have become entrenched in Alaigbo, southeastern Nigeria. This marginalization persists despite the adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1979, a treaty ratified by all West African states, including Nigeria. More than four decades later, Igbo women still endure discrimination, largely due to the government’s hesitation to fully implement and enforce this international commitment.

Before Nigeria’s colonization, Igbo and other African women enjoyed greater control over their lives, wielding fundamental power within daily routines and family structures. Although the Igbo sociopolitical system was predominantly male and kinship-based, it remained flexible enough to offer many women leadership roles. This was made possible by the dual-sex political system in Igbo society, where women’s organizations operated as parallel authority structures alongside men’s, reflecting a balance of power and complementarity between the genders. In precolonial Nigeria, women’s musical performances not only expressed their social status but also celebrated this gender partnership. However, British colonial rule and missionary activities severely undermined and dismantled the traditional autonomy and influence of women. Igbo musical traditions, however, have maintained a vital role in expressing gender relations, often intertwined with religious significance.

The performance costume of the Chikwado women’s ensemble of Amodo.

Igbo music is fundamentally about promoting the lasting well-being of individuals and communities. This principle influences how musical performances and groups are formed, a tradition that continues to thrive today. For example, Felicia Ezeugwu, a leader of her group, explained that the Chikwado women’s ensemble of Amodo was founded in Nsukka due to concerns about public sanitation. After their weekly village cleaning sessions, the Amodo women would make music for their own entertainment, which eventually developed into a formal music and dance group. In this way, women’s musical activities serve as a powerful way to express and fulfill the social, religious, political, and cultural duties that maintain the community.

This according to “Depiction and empowerment of women in Indigenous Igbo music” by Ijeoma Iruka Forchu (Ethnomusicology 67/1 [winter 2023] 45–71; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2023-9947).

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Filed under Africa, Black studies, Gender and sexuality, Women's studies

Poly Styrene in Slash

The February 1978 issue of Slash Magazine opened with the assertion, “We ain’t stupid, we know that glamorous women sell more magazines, so what else could we do but put the lovely Poly Styrene on it?” At this point, as Slash was entering its second year of documenting the burgeoning punk and new wave scenes across Los Angeles and beyond, the magazine had already gained a reputation for its unapologetically bold stance against disco, Elvis, and concept albums. It declared, “Enough is enough, partner! About time we squeezed the pus out and sent the filthy rich old farts of rock ‘n’ roll to retirement homes in Florida where they belong.”

Founded in Los Angeles in 1977 by Steve Samiof and Melanie Nissen, Slash magazine covered a broad spectrum of genres tied to the underground rock scene of the time. Beyond punk and new wave, it also provided coverage of rockabilly, reggae, and blues. Over its run, Slash published 29 issues before it folded in 1980. However, its legacy lived on through Slash Records, a punk label that was eventually acquired by Warner Bros. Records in 1999. The February 1978 issue epitomized what made Slash iconic within the early punk scene. With feature sections like “Local Shit”, “Dread Greats”. a lively “Letters from Readers” column, and the beloved comic strip Jimbo by Gary Panter, the magazine set the stage for its signature interviews with punk musicians.

A poem in the February 1978 issue of Slash.

The highlight of this issue was undoubtedly the interview with Poly Styrene (born Marianne Joan Elliott-Said), the lead singer of the London punk band X-Ray Spex. Born from a Scottish-Irish mother and a Somali father, Styrene began writing and playing music at 15, eventually becoming the embodiment of punk’s youthful, creative energy. As the frontwoman of X-Ray Spex, Poly stepped into a predominantly white, male-dominated punk scene. Her identity as a biracial teenage girl with thick braces and wild curly locks made her a strikingly radical figure in a movement that celebrated its defiant and unconventional image.

Poly Styrene in action.

In the interview, conducted at a Shepperton bar, Poly talks about X-Ray Spex’s activities in a blunt and indifferent tone, typical of 1970s punk attitude.

Slash: So when was X-Ray Spex formed?

Poly: About Christmas, around January.

Slash: So it’s just been a year-a pretty amazing year, eh?

Poly: Yeah, I s’pose so, pretty good.

Slash: Did you ever expect X-Ray Spex to get this big? You must be knocked out by what’s happening.

Poly: I don’t really think about it–I never thought about it, and I still don’t. I just carry on.

Poly also shares fascinating details of her life in music, including how she came up with her punk moniker, the evolution of the band, her passion for fashion, and why so many young people in the late 1970s had grown bored with mainstream music.

Read the full interview in the RILM Archive of Popular Music Magazines.

Below is a fan-made video for the X-Ray Spex song Oh bondage! Up yours!

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Filed under Literature, Music magazines, Popular music

International Day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition (23 August)

This Saturday, 23 August, is UNESCO’s International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, which seeks to “inscribe the tragedy of the slave trade in the memory of all peoples”. The date coincides with the 1791 uprising in Saint Domingue, today the Republic of Haiti, that so heavily impacted the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. In regions like the Caribbean, northern South America, and Brazil, music and culture have been deeply shaped by the historical conditions of African slavery and fusion and syncretization that arose from European colonialism. Today, the Afro-Latin musical roots of genres such as salsa, Cuban son, Brazilian samba and bossa nova, Dominican merengue, and Panamanian and Puerto Rican reggaetón, among many others, continue to echo the enduring legacy of slavery in the Americas.

To observe the International Day, read the entry on slavery in Ilan Stavans’s Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes, which traces the abhorrent practice globally, with a detailed section on the Haitian Revolution, the first and only successful slave rebellion to dismantle the plantation system and achieve political independence. The rebellion reverberated across the New World and sparked a wave of newfound consciousness and hope among Black populations throughout the Americas, while simultaneously triggering reactionary and often violent responses from European and criollo planters and other ruling elites.

Prise de la Ravine-à-Couleuvres (Capture of the Ravine-à-Couleuvres, 23 February 1802), by Karl Girardet, engraved by Jean-Jacques Outhwaite.

Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes provides an in-depth exploration of the rich and diverse world of Latin American music, examining its history, cultural significance, and the wide range of genres it encompasses. Spanning five centuries and 25 countries, the encyclopedia, covers the evolution of Latin music from its roots in Indigenous, African, and European traditions to its contemporary global influence. It offers detailed profiles of influential musicians, including iconic figures such as Tito Puente, Celia Cruz, Placido Domingo, and Carlos Santana, shedding light on their contributions to the development of Latin music and their lasting legacies. The two volumes delve into key genres like salsa, merengue, bachata, tango, and reggaetón, discussing their origins, stylistic characteristics, and cultural impact across different Latin American countries and communities. In addition to genre exploration, Latin music touches on broader themes of identity, migration, and the ways in which Latin music has become a vehicle for social and political expression. The encyclopedia’s 244 entries also include sociopolitical factors that have shaped Latin American music’s growth and dissemination. This is a key resource for music researchers looking to understand the musical traditions, key figures, and cultural contexts that have defined music in Latin America and its enduring global appeal.

Find the entry on slavery written by Ruthie Meadows in Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes located in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The first image is of Sexteto Habanero (circa 1925), an early Cuban son band from Havana, Cuba.

Related Bibliolore posts:

https://bibliolore.org/2021/10/04/cubas-tonadas-trinitarias/

https://bibliolore.org/2019/01/07/the-tigueras-of-merengue-tipico/

https://bibliolore.org/2022/10/14/breaking-barriers-in-latinx-musical-practices-an-annotated-bibliography/

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Filed under Migrations, Politics, Popular music, Resources, RILM, South America, West Indies, World music

The Hindustani bīṇ

The term “vīṇā” has appeared in various Vedic texts dating back to the early first millennium B.C.E. Originally a generic designation for stringed instruments, the term has been used in diverse ways across India and throughout parts of Southeast Asia. Evolving directly from earlier medieval stick zithers, the Hindustani bīṇ (the word for vīṇā or rudra veena in North India) came to be regarded as one of the most esteemed instruments in the Hindustani musical tradition. Alongside the rabāb, the bīṇ held a central place in court and classical music traditions. Its significance was underscored by the honorary title mahatī vīṇā (the great vīṇā). The art of playing the bīṇ was transmitted through hereditary family traditions, or gharānās, some of which trace their lineage back to the legendary court musician Tānsen, who served under the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Musical knowledge was closely guarded within these lineages, and professional performance of the bīṇ was typically restricted to male members of the family.

A portrait of the Hindustani classical musician, Mian Tansen.

The modern form of the bīṇ likely emerged during the 19th century. Earlier versions featured a string holder made of bamboo with wooden end pieces inserted; later designs replaced this with a fully wooden tube, constructed by joining two hollowed-out halves. At the lower end sits a high, often hollow bridge supported by a wide, arched piece of bone. The instrument now has 24 tall wooden frets with metal inlays along the playing edges, laced on in a movable fashion. Seven large tuning pegs are inserted through the string holder from both the right and left sides. Four main playing strings run across the frets, accompanied by three additional strings—used for drone and rhythmic punctuation—two positioned on the left side of the tube (closest to the player) and one on the right. These auxiliary strings each rest on separate, broad bone bridges at the lower end of the instrument. Two large resonators, made from bottle gourds fitted with wooden components, are attached to the back of the string carrier using hollow threaded fittings. Each resonator has a hand-sized round opening at the rear, contributing to the bīṇ’s distinctive tonal resonance.

This according to a recently published entry on the vina by Pia Srinivasan Buonomo in MGG Online.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, World music

The improbable rise of Run the Jewels

In the history of rap music, the success of Killer Mike (Michael Render), a Black man from Atlanta, Georgia, and El-P (Jaime Meline), a white man from Brooklyn, New York, seems implausible. Yet, they’ve defied all odds, turning what should have been the twilight of their careers into the peak of their success. As the powerhouse duo Run the Jewels, El-P and Killer Mike have headlined global festivals, become action figures and Marvel comic characters, led a worldwide countercultural movement, and played significant roles in the last two U.S. presidential elections.

Their journey evokes a modern-day buddy movie. Filled with twists and triumphs, it mirrors the massive shifts in the music industry over the last 25 years–from the peak of the CD era to its decline and the rise of streaming platforms–and reflects the evolution of pop culture and its sociopolitical climate. From the surge of Afrofuturism and the fall of the Twin Towers to the emergence of the Black Lives Matter movement and Colin Kaepernick’s protest, these pivotal moments shaped how their growing friendship turned Killer Mike and El-P from underground solo acts into globally recognized icons.

Killer Mike (left) and El-P perform on NPR’s Tiny Desk.

RTJ album cover artwork.

Listen to the 10th anniversary edition of Run the Jewels’ first album here.

Killer Mike, the 39-year-old rapper and entrepreneur, commands attention with his powerful presence, blending raw talent with a unique perspective that sets him apart. His verses seamlessly navigate detailed street narratives, intense battle raps, sharp punchlines, and passionate political commentary. Killer Mike first gained widespread recognition as a protégé of Outkast, the iconic Atlanta rap duo that paved the way for Southern hip hop to earn international respect. As a member of the Dungeon Family, he got his big break with a standout feature on Snappin’ and trappin’, a track from OutKast’s 2000 album Stankonia. After a series of solo releases and mixtapes, he expanded his creative reach, contributing music and voicing a character on Frisky dingo, an animated series that marked the beginning of his collaboration with Cartoon Network’s Adult Swim. In 2012, Killer Mike dropped R.A.P. music, a fiery album that brought together his commanding presence with the menacing beats of El-P, a seasoned veteran of New York City’s independent hip hop scene.

El-P (left) and Killer Mike (right) perform during the 2019 All Points East Festival at Victoria Park in London. Photo by Robin Little.

El-P first made his mark as part of Company Flow, a group of sharp-tongued, anti-establishment lyricists who approached their tracks with the same rebellious energy as graffiti artists tagging subway cars. As the flagship act of Rawkus Records, a powerhouse of independent hip hop in the mid-1990s, Company Flow’s 1996 album Funcrusher plus became a cornerstone of underground hip hop. By the end of the decade, El-P, alongside his manager Amaechi Uzoigwe, launched the Definitive Jux label, with the intent to release Company Flow’s second album. However, before the project could come to fruition, the group split up. Despite this, the unfinished material was eventually reworked and became the foundation for El-P’s solo breakout, marking the start of his career as a solo artist and producer.

Official RTJ action figures.

The unexpected collaboration between underground hip hop giants El-P and Killer Mike turned out to be a perfect fit. In 2013, the duo reunited to launch Run the Jewels, revamping the gritty, hard-hitting style of late-1980s and early-1990s hip hop legends like Ice Cube and EPMD. Through their groundbreaking releases, Killer Mike and El-P firmly established themselves as dominant forces in modern music, becoming influential voices in the soundscape of contemporary rap.

This according to Kill your masters: Run the Jewels and the world that made them by Jaap Van der Doelen (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2024; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 2024-15629).

Watch Run the Jewels perform on NPR’s Tiny Desk concerts here.

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Filed under Humor, Mass media, Music industry, Performers, Politics, Popular music

A new model for Italian music production

RCA Italiana, established in Rome in 1951 as a subsidiary of the Radio Corporation of America, became one of the most influential Italian record labels of the 20th century. Its foundation was supported not only by the Vatican but also by funding from the 1948 European Recovery Program–better known as the Marshall Plan. Under the leadership of Ennio Melis, RCA earned a prominent role in Italian popular music, and from 1962 onward, some of the most iconic figures in Italian music recorded at its expansive studios on Via Tiburtina, as well as the more intimate Cenacolo studios. Artists such as Ennio Morricone, Gianni Morandi, Patty Pravo, Francesco De Gregori, and Antonello Venditti all passed through its doors. However, after its peak in the early 1960s and into the mid-1970s, RCA faced a significant decline, partly due to the bankruptcy of its parent company and shifts in the global market. The 1980s saw the company’s final fall, culminating in its sale to Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) in 1986. Despite its decline, the RCA brand—once a symbol of the golden age of the Italian recording industry—still exists today under the Sony Music catalog.

RCA Italiana employee testing a record plate.

Listen to Nico Fidenco‘s La voglia di ballare here. This and many other Italian pop recordings were produced at RCA Italiana.

The company was originally named Radio e Televisione Italiana SpA (RTI). Its president, Count Enrico Pietro Galeazzi Lisi, who was a special delegate of the Pope, oversaw its establishment, while the driving force behind the project was Giuseppe Antonino Biondo, a Sicilian engineer and naturalized U.S. citizen working for the American RCA. The name RCA Italiana SpA was officially adopted in July 1954, a year after the company made the somewhat controversial decision to shift its focus to record production. Initially, the U.S. multinational appeared more interested in exporting its phonographic and radio-television equipment. However, by the end of 1953, the company outlined a new program for releases on 78 rpm records, coinciding with the final wave of Marshall Plan funding. To kickstart this new direction, Biondo enlisted renowned composer and conductor Armando Trovajoli and several other prominent Italian musicians. The new catalogue marked a departure from the dominant the American RCA and its classical repertoire, helping to usher in a new era of Italian music. These recordings took shape in a variety of studios already equipped with RCA technology.

Aerial view of the RCA Italiana campus.

In June 1962, the complex of recording studios on Via Tiburtina was officially inaugurated. The facility was a flagship of the company, featuring a centralized production system inspired by the U.S. model. This system consolidated all phases of the production process–recording, mastering, pressing, and storage–into one multipurpose campus. The heart of the complex was a striking red studio building (see the first image in this post), which featured the RCA Italiana sign, prominently visible from the Raccordo Anulare, the nearby ring road. Inside, the campus housed four recording studios spread across different floors: Studio A, the largest, was designed for big orchestras; studio B, about half the size of studio A, was used for vocals, instrumental recordings, soundtracks, and film dubbing; and the smaller studios C and D were intended for more smaller productions.

Studio A control room.

Production facilities at RCA Italiana.

Additionally, there were three natural echo chambers (reverberation rooms) built underground to minimize interference from external sounds. However, vibrations from the increasingly heavy traffic on the nearby ring road rendered these chambers unusable, prompting the development of artificial reverb technology. The other building on the site contained office spaces, warehouses dedicated to pressing records, and other storage areas for the finished products. Although the album covers were printed by third-party companies, the design work was carried out on the campus, ensuring a fully integrated creative process.

This according to a newly published entry on RCA Italiana by Francesco Brusco in DEUMM Online.

Watch an documentary in Italian on the history RCA Italiana here.

RCA Italiana employees testing recordings.

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Filed under Acoustics, Europe, Mass media, Music industry, Performers, Popular music