Category Archives: Ethnomusicology

by rilm | November 6, 2025 · 6:00 am

M.L. Vasanthakumari: A playback singer of Karnatak vocal pedigree

As a child, Indian playback singer M.L. Vasanthakumari–affectionately known as Vasanthi–dreamed of becoming a doctor, inspired by her belief that “doctors save lives.” Though she ultimately did not pursue a medical career, Vasanthi touched countless lives through the power of her resonant voice. In many ways, music was her birthright: both her parents were accomplished musicians. Her father, Koothanur Ayyasami Iyer, was deeply knowledgeable in Karnatak music and held a strong interest in Hindustani classical traditions. Her mother, Lalithangi, came from a family steeped in the fine arts, studied under several renowned musicians, and was an active concert performer.

M.L. Vasanthakumari performing in Karur.

Despite her parents’ deep involvement in Karnatak music and her evident musical talent from an early age, Vasanthi’s parents were initially reluctant to support a professional career in music. Instead, they enrolled her in a convent school in Madras (now Chennai), where she studied with the intention of pursuing medicine. Nevertheless, the rich musical environment at home offered her ample opportunities to sing and develop her craft. At a young age, she recorded her first 78-rpm single in 1941, paving the way for future recording contracts and releases. Her turning point came when the renowned Karnatak musician G. N. Balasubramaniam heard her sing and persuaded her parents to let him mentor her. At just 12 years old, Vasanthi accompanied her mother at a recital and soon after made her solo concert debut in Bengaluru.

Listen to M.L. Vasanthakumari perform live in Madras (Chennai) in 1975 here.

By the mid-1940s, Vasanthi had established herself as a playback singer, cultivating a distinctive voice and style that would make her one of the leading figures in Indian film music for the next two decades. She was a featured performer at nearly every major music festival in South India, as well as in prominent Karnatak music circles across the country. Her presence on radio was equally pervasive, further solidifying her reputation as a national icon. Vasanthi remained a top performer in India until her passing in October 1990. Her mentor, G. N. Balasubramaniam, once remarked, “Vasanthi typifies real discipleship. She applies her mind to what all she absorbs and presents a glorious edifice of her own creation.”

This according to “M. L. Vasanthakumari–Melody, laya, vidwat” by N. Pattabhi Raman, et al. (Sruti 75-76 [1990–1991] 25–42,47–63; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 1991-38894). Find it in RILM Abstracts with Full Text.

An official Indian postage stamp celebrating M. L. Vasanthakumari.

Functions of the kidiu in East Malaysia

The kidiu (pictured above) is a unique aerophone in Malaysian folk music, specifically a bullroarer, which is a type of free aerophone that lacks an air column or closed air reservoir. Used by the Kenyah-Badang ethnic group in the Upper Rejang River region of Sarawak, the kidiu is typically played in small ensembles of two or three bullroarers to create melodies. The kidiu consists of a flat, oval disc made from wood or bamboo, with precise dimensions–at least ten centimeters in length, about eight to ten centimeters in width, and two to three centimeters in thickness. The disc is attached to a string, which is connected to a bamboo pole with a handle, with both the string and bamboo pole being approximately the same length.

The player holds the bamboo pole by its handle and swings the kidiu disc quickly through the air, generating swirling air currents that produce distinct short notes. These notes vary based on the size of the disc and the speed at which it is swung. Typically, two or more players use differently sized kidiu discs, swinging them at specific intervals to create a range of notes, depending on the strength and direction of their swings–either forward, backward, or in a circular motion. Played in an interlocking pattern, the two or three kidiu discs produce repeating short melodic phrases as long as the players continue swinging them.

Kenyah kidiu. Image courtesy of the British Museum.

Initially, the kidiu was used in rice paddies to scare away pests like birds, mice, and insects that threatened the rice crops. Over time, however, it evolved into a musical instrument used for entertainment among the residents of the longhouse.

This according to the featured article on the music of Malaysia by Patricia Matusky in MGG Online.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, Nature, Uncategorized, World music

Tagged as aerophone, bamboo, instrument, kidiu, Malaysia, Sarawak, Southeast Asia

by rilm | September 24, 2025 · 6:00 am

Cassettes as sound archives of the early Colombian punk scene

Cassette tapes played a pivotal role in democratizing music consumption, empowering independent creation and distribution–especially in genres like punk and rap. Their portability and low cost made them powerful tools for circulating ideas and challenging dominant cultural narratives. Though the music industry feared their potential for piracy, cassettes did more than any previous technology to globalize music access. In the Global South, where major labels maintained near-monopolies, cassettes enabled the spread of music that held little commercial appeal for corporate interests, fostering the emergence of new genres in the process.

Cassettes played a vital role in the global ascent of genres like hip hop, punk, and extreme metal, emerging as the preferred medium for lo-fi and experimental artists. Their raw sound quality and DIY accessibility made them indispensable to underground scenes, allowing musicians to bypass industry gatekeepers and connect directly with listeners across borders. This cultural significance was captured in the inaugural 2019 issue of El sótano: Memorias punk Medallo, a fanzine documenting the punk movement in Medellín, Colombia during the 1980s and 1990s. The issue features vivid recollections from musicians and fans, reflecting on the cassette tapes (casetes) that preserved their sound and spirit.

According to the zine, in Medellín, casetes were the loyal companions of punk’s rebellious roar, echoing through the dark, decaying streets where the movement thrived. Slipped into pockets or tucked inside worn jackets, each tape bore a personal imprint–amplifying the raw realities of life on the margins. In this landscape of resistance, punk forged its own inventive forms of defiance. The cassette, more than a plastic medium, became a vessel of sonic rebellion, flooding the streets with noise, and confronting the very society that sought to silence it.

Today, casetes endure as potent memory devices–resonant artifacts of scenes that thrived on the cassette’s portability and resilience. As Patricia Arenas, a Medellin punk musician recalled, “Cassettes were everything to punk–they were the gateway to discovering bands and the soundtrack that traveled from one neighborhood to another. Back then, we recorded our own tapes and shared them with others. It was a simple act, but it carried a kind of mysticism: having a cassette and a pen to label it, to mark it with our own touch, and to know exactly what we were listening to.”

Ana Loaiza, another musician from Medellín, recalls the deep personal connection she formed with cassette tapes, each one carrying its own memory. “When I started getting into music, I lived and breathed to get cassettes,” she says. “They’re part of every rocker’s history in Medellín–we used to steal them from our parents.” Loaiza still treasures her collection, many of which remain in pristine condition. Protective of her tapes, she rarely lent them out. For her, it was a ritual: carefully labeling each cassette, writing out lyrics by hand, and using special pens reserved just for that purpose. These tapes weren’t just music–they were artifacts of identity, rebellion, and belonging.

This according to El sótano: Memorias punk Medallo. Find it in the RILM Archive of Popular Music Magazines.

Music and the status of women in Igbo society

Although Igbo women in Nigeria come from diverse socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, they share common experiences regarding how their gender is socially classified. In many cases, they face a pervasive sense of powerlessness rooted in gender inequality, alongside widespread marginalizing and discriminatory practices that have become entrenched in Alaigbo, southeastern Nigeria. This marginalization persists despite the adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1979, a treaty ratified by all West African states, including Nigeria. More than four decades later, Igbo women still endure discrimination, largely due to the government’s hesitation to fully implement and enforce this international commitment.

Before Nigeria’s colonization, Igbo and other African women enjoyed greater control over their lives, wielding fundamental power within daily routines and family structures. Although the Igbo sociopolitical system was predominantly male and kinship-based, it remained flexible enough to offer many women leadership roles. This was made possible by the dual-sex political system in Igbo society, where women’s organizations operated as parallel authority structures alongside men’s, reflecting a balance of power and complementarity between the genders. In precolonial Nigeria, women’s musical performances not only expressed their social status but also celebrated this gender partnership. However, British colonial rule and missionary activities severely undermined and dismantled the traditional autonomy and influence of women. Igbo musical traditions, however, have maintained a vital role in expressing gender relations, often intertwined with religious significance.

The performance costume of the Chikwado women’s ensemble of Amodo.

Igbo music is fundamentally about promoting the lasting well-being of individuals and communities. This principle influences how musical performances and groups are formed, a tradition that continues to thrive today. For example, Felicia Ezeugwu, a leader of her group, explained that the Chikwado women’s ensemble of Amodo was founded in Nsukka due to concerns about public sanitation. After their weekly village cleaning sessions, the Amodo women would make music for their own entertainment, which eventually developed into a formal music and dance group. In this way, women’s musical activities serve as a powerful way to express and fulfill the social, religious, political, and cultural duties that maintain the community.

This according to “Depiction and empowerment of women in Indigenous Igbo music” by Ijeoma Iruka Forchu (Ethnomusicology 67/1 [winter 2023] 45–71; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2023-9947).

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Filed under Africa, Black studies, Gender and sexuality, Women's studies

Tagged as British colonialism, Gender, Igbo, marginalization, Nigeria, West Africa, women

by rilm | August 22, 2025 · 6:00 am

International Day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition (23 August)

This Saturday, 23 August, is UNESCO’s International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, which seeks to “inscribe the tragedy of the slave trade in the memory of all peoples”. The date coincides with the 1791 uprising in Saint Domingue, today the Republic of Haiti, that so heavily impacted the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. In regions like the Caribbean, northern South America, and Brazil, music and culture have been deeply shaped by the historical conditions of African slavery and fusion and syncretization that arose from European colonialism. Today, the Afro-Latin musical roots of genres such as salsa, Cuban son, Brazilian samba and bossa nova, Dominican merengue, and Panamanian and Puerto Rican reggaetón, among many others, continue to echo the enduring legacy of slavery in the Americas.

To observe the International Day, read the entry on slavery in Ilan Stavans’s Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes, which traces the abhorrent practice globally, with a detailed section on the Haitian Revolution, the first and only successful slave rebellion to dismantle the plantation system and achieve political independence. The rebellion reverberated across the New World and sparked a wave of newfound consciousness and hope among Black populations throughout the Americas, while simultaneously triggering reactionary and often violent responses from European and criollo planters and other ruling elites.

*Prise de la Ravine-à-Couleuvres* (Capture of the Ravine-à-Couleuvres, 23 February 1802), by Karl Girardet, engraved by Jean-Jacques Outhwaite.

Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes provides an in-depth exploration of the rich and diverse world of Latin American music, examining its history, cultural significance, and the wide range of genres it encompasses. Spanning five centuries and 25 countries, the encyclopedia, covers the evolution of Latin music from its roots in Indigenous, African, and European traditions to its contemporary global influence. It offers detailed profiles of influential musicians, including iconic figures such as Tito Puente, Celia Cruz, Placido Domingo, and Carlos Santana, shedding light on their contributions to the development of Latin music and their lasting legacies. The two volumes delve into key genres like salsa, merengue, bachata, tango, and reggaetón, discussing their origins, stylistic characteristics, and cultural impact across different Latin American countries and communities. In addition to genre exploration, Latin music touches on broader themes of identity, migration, and the ways in which Latin music has become a vehicle for social and political expression. The encyclopedia’s 244 entries also include sociopolitical factors that have shaped Latin American music’s growth and dissemination. This is a key resource for music researchers looking to understand the musical traditions, key figures, and cultural contexts that have defined music in Latin America and its enduring global appeal.

Find the entry on slavery written by Ruthie Meadows in Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes located in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The first image is of Sexteto Habanero (circa 1925), an early Cuban son band from Havana, Cuba.

The Hindustani bīṇ

The term “vīṇā” has appeared in various Vedic texts dating back to the early first millennium B.C.E. Originally a generic designation for stringed instruments, the term has been used in diverse ways across India and throughout parts of Southeast Asia. Evolving directly from earlier medieval stick zithers, the Hindustani bīṇ (the word for vīṇā or rudra veena in North India) came to be regarded as one of the most esteemed instruments in the Hindustani musical tradition. Alongside the rabāb, the bīṇ held a central place in court and classical music traditions. Its significance was underscored by the honorary title mahatī vīṇā (the great vīṇā). The art of playing the bīṇ was transmitted through hereditary family traditions, or gharānās, some of which trace their lineage back to the legendary court musician Tānsen, who served under the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Musical knowledge was closely guarded within these lineages, and professional performance of the bīṇ was typically restricted to male members of the family.

A portrait of the Hindustani classical musician, Mian Tansen.

The modern form of the bīṇ likely emerged during the 19th century. Earlier versions featured a string holder made of bamboo with wooden end pieces inserted; later designs replaced this with a fully wooden tube, constructed by joining two hollowed-out halves. At the lower end sits a high, often hollow bridge supported by a wide, arched piece of bone. The instrument now has 24 tall wooden frets with metal inlays along the playing edges, laced on in a movable fashion. Seven large tuning pegs are inserted through the string holder from both the right and left sides. Four main playing strings run across the frets, accompanied by three additional strings—used for drone and rhythmic punctuation—two positioned on the left side of the tube (closest to the player) and one on the right. These auxiliary strings each rest on separate, broad bone bridges at the lower end of the instrument. Two large resonators, made from bottle gourds fitted with wooden components, are attached to the back of the string carrier using hollow threaded fittings. Each resonator has a hand-sized round opening at the rear, contributing to the bīṇ’s distinctive tonal resonance.

This according to a recently published entry on the vina by Pia Srinivasan Buonomo in MGG Online.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, World music

Tagged as bīṇ, Hindustani music, instrument, North India, Tansen

by rilm | August 2, 2025 · 6:00 am

A new model for Italian music production

RCA Italiana, established in Rome in 1951 as a subsidiary of the Radio Corporation of America, became one of the most influential Italian record labels of the 20th century. Its foundation was supported not only by the Vatican but also by funding from the 1948 European Recovery Program–better known as the Marshall Plan. Under the leadership of Ennio Melis, RCA earned a prominent role in Italian popular music, and from 1962 onward, some of the most iconic figures in Italian music recorded at its expansive studios on Via Tiburtina, as well as the more intimate Cenacolo studios. Artists such as Ennio Morricone, Gianni Morandi, Patty Pravo, Francesco De Gregori, and Antonello Venditti all passed through its doors. However, after its peak in the early 1960s and into the mid-1970s, RCA faced a significant decline, partly due to the bankruptcy of its parent company and shifts in the global market. The 1980s saw the company’s final fall, culminating in its sale to Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) in 1986. Despite its decline, the RCA brand—once a symbol of the golden age of the Italian recording industry—still exists today under the Sony Music catalog.

RCA Italiana employee testing a record plate.

Listen to Nico Fidenco‘s *La voglia di ballare* here. This and many other Italian pop recordings were produced at RCA Italiana.

The company was originally named Radio e Televisione Italiana SpA (RTI). Its president, Count Enrico Pietro Galeazzi Lisi, who was a special delegate of the Pope, oversaw its establishment, while the driving force behind the project was Giuseppe Antonino Biondo, a Sicilian engineer and naturalized U.S. citizen working for the American RCA. The name RCA Italiana SpA was officially adopted in July 1954, a year after the company made the somewhat controversial decision to shift its focus to record production. Initially, the U.S. multinational appeared more interested in exporting its phonographic and radio-television equipment. However, by the end of 1953, the company outlined a new program for releases on 78 rpm records, coinciding with the final wave of Marshall Plan funding. To kickstart this new direction, Biondo enlisted renowned composer and conductor Armando Trovajoli and several other prominent Italian musicians. The new catalogue marked a departure from the dominant the American RCA and its classical repertoire, helping to usher in a new era of Italian music. These recordings took shape in a variety of studios already equipped with RCA technology.

In June 1962, the complex of recording studios on Via Tiburtina was officially inaugurated. The facility was a flagship of the company, featuring a centralized production system inspired by the U.S. model. This system consolidated all phases of the production process–recording, mastering, pressing, and storage–into one multipurpose campus. The heart of the complex was a striking red studio building (see the first image in this post), which featured the RCA Italiana sign, prominently visible from the Raccordo Anulare, the nearby ring road. Inside, the campus housed four recording studios spread across different floors: Studio A, the largest, was designed for big orchestras; studio B, about half the size of studio A, was used for vocals, instrumental recordings, soundtracks, and film dubbing; and the smaller studios C and D were intended for more smaller productions.

Additionally, there were three natural echo chambers (reverberation rooms) built underground to minimize interference from external sounds. However, vibrations from the increasingly heavy traffic on the nearby ring road rendered these chambers unusable, prompting the development of artificial reverb technology. The other building on the site contained office spaces, warehouses dedicated to pressing records, and other storage areas for the finished products. Although the album covers were printed by third-party companies, the design work was carried out on the campus, ensuring a fully integrated creative process.

This according to a newly published entry on RCA Italiana by Francesco Brusco in DEUMM Online.

Watch an documentary in Italian on the history RCA Italiana here.

RCA Italiana employees testing recordings.

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Filed under Acoustics, Europe, Mass media, Music industry, Performers, Popular music

Tagged as Italy, Marshall Plan, Music industry, Pop, Popular music, RCA Italiana, Sound recording and reproduction

by rilm | July 29, 2025 · 6:00 am

Mongol and Han shamanic ritual music

Lingshen, or “welcoming the deity,” is a shamanic ritual music practiced by the Mongol people of Horqin and the Han people of Jutai in China. It emerges within the context of healing ceremonies led by a shaman and their assistant, typically performed for individuals experiencing hysteria. Central to this practice is the shamanic belief that all aspects of the world are governed by spirits, and that divine protection is granted only to those who express deep devotion and reverence toward the gods. In this spiritual framework, the divine is omnipresent, reflecting a worldview rooted in the principle that “all things have spirits”. This belief system is intimately tied to the rhythm of daily village life, shaped through the intertwined development of culture and ritual. Shamanism stands at the heart of this musical culture.

The lingshen ritual encompasses a rich tapestry of sonic elements: the ritual specialist evokes spirits through the striking of percussion instruments, a designated singer delivers spiritually resonant melodies, and the faithful respond with rhythmic hand clapping, creating a musical dialogue between humans and the divine. These performances are more than ceremonial; they serve as transmission vessels for shamanic musical culture, deeply rooted in local folk customs and shaped by the lived experiences of village life.

Horqin’s vast grasslands in northern China are characteristic of the region’s landscape.

Geographically, Horqin’s proximity to Jilin province and its historical inclusion of the Jiutai district in Changchun has fostered a cross-cultural exchange. During the early Qing dynasty, intermingling between the Mongol and Han populations–through trade, migration, and shared ritual practice–deeply influenced the evolution of local shamanic music traditions. As a result, lingshen embodies not only sacred spiritual intent but also the historical flow of musical motifs and ritual structures across ethnic and regional boundaries.

The songs performed in lingshen rituals serve distinctly functional purposes within the spiritual framework of shamanic healing. For practitioners, their use is twofold: first, the shaman employs music to express the community’s reverence and devotion to the deities, acting as an intermediary voice between the people and the divine; second, through prayerful singing and coordinated ritual sound, both the shaman and the faithful aim to soothe and honor the gods in accordance with the wishes of the villagers. This musical invocation is believed to facilitate a swift descent of the spirits into the ritual space, thereby initiating the healing process and affirming spiritual presence.

The frame drums above are key instruments in the rituals of both the Horqin Mongolian and Jiutai Han shamans.

A comparative study of the shamanic musical traditions among the Mongolian and Han peoples in Horqin and Jiutai reveals a pattern of coordinated cultural development. During the early Qing Dynasty, political alliances and intermarriages between Horqin Mongols and the Manchus served to preserve each group’s regime stability. These relationships, along with sustained political and economic exchange and the movement of Mongolian and Han populations within the region, fostered the emergence of new village social structures. The evolving social frameworks and their intersecting cultural subsystems laid fertile ground for mutual influence, shaping the trajectory of shamanic music culture in both communities.

This according to 萨满音乐的协同与影响—科尔沁蒙古族与九台汉族萨满领神音乐之比较 (The synergy and influence of shamanic music: A comparison of the shamanic lingshen music of the Mongol people in Horqin and the Han people in Jiutai) by Wang Xiaodong (Zhongyang Yinyue Xueyuan xuebao/Journal of the Central Conservatory of Music 4:165 [fall 2021] 31–46; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 2021-17727). Find this journal in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text.

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Filed under Asia, Ethnomusicology, Religious music, World music

Tagged as China, folk customs, Horqin, Jilin province, lingshen, Percussion instrument, Ritual, Shamanism, Sound

by rilm | July 11, 2025 · 6:00 am

Black Sabbath and Joy Division channel the sounds of industrialized England

Scholars have long drawn connections between urban life and specific music genres, especially heavy metal. The British bands Black Sabbath and Joy Division serve as compelling case studies, exemplifying how their music emerged as a reflection of the bleak, industrial landscapes of 1960s and 1970s England. Despite belonging to different genres, both bands share a profound commonality: their sound was forged by—and evocative of—the desolation of these environments. This influence is particularly evident through key musical elements, including an unusually bass-heavy sonic palette, repetitive and continuous textures, austere arrangements, rigid song structures, and lyrical themes steeped in urban alienation.

Though separated by roughly a decade, Black Sabbath and Joy Division each aligned loosely with the dominant musical movements of their time. Black Sabbath emerged from the late 1960s blues rock scene, while Joy Division was a product of the post-punk wave of the late 1970s. Despite the differing genres, both bands distinguished themselves through striking originality and enduring influence. Their impact can be traced to two key sources: a strong sense of group synergy and their ability to channel shared urban-industrial experiences into music. In this sense, their music evokes a soundscape of similarly bleak and oppressive environments.

Black Sabbath in 1970. From left to right: Ozzy Osbourne, Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler, and Bill Ward.

A defining similarity between Black Sabbath and Joy Division lies in the pervasive darkness and heaviness of both their sound and lyrical content. This shared aesthetic reflects a fascination with bleak and nihilistic themes–ranging from personal alienation and psychological turmoil to pressing social concerns such as war and drug addiction, particularly prominent in Black Sabbath’s music. This sonic and thematic weight can be traced directly to the oppressive industrial environments that shaped each band’s identity. Black Sabbath’s members, for instance, were raised in Aston, a war-scarred inner-city district of Birmingham marked by factories, soot-covered terrace houses, smoking chimneys, and remnants of World War II bomb sites. Such surroundings weren’t just the backdrop of their lives; they seeped into the music, transforming lived experience into powerful soundscapes of urban despair.

Joy Division in Manchester, 1979. Photo credit: Kevin Cummins

Joy Division’s origins closely mirrored those of Black Sabbath, shaped by similarly stark surroundings. Bassist Peter Hook and guitarist Bernard Sumner–the band’s central creative forces–grew up in Salford, a working class area near Manchester, during the 1960s and 1970s. Sumner vividly described his neighborhood as “a potted version of the entire, industrialized northwest,” listing iron works, copper works, cloth-finishing factories, paint and chemical plants, cotton mills, sawmills, and brass foundries—all within walking distance of his home. Despite a strong sense of community fostered by tightly packed terraced houses that fronted directly onto the street, the neighborhood was shadowed by frequent violence and a culture that emphasized emotional stoicism and cold, hardened masculinity.

A Manchester cotton mill, early 20th century.

The primal, bass-heavy, riff-driven sound of both Black Sabbath and Joy Division mirrors the industrial landscapes from which they emerged. Factories, conveyor belts, trains, and constant traffic created a dense low-frequency soundscape–a persistent rumble and thunder that saturated the environment. Although high-pitched noises occur in such settings, they are typically brief and peripheral, sharply contrasting with the ever-present bass tones. The absence of natural high-frequency sounds–such as birdsong or rustling leaves–further contributes to the sonic bleakness, depriving the environment of melodic brightness. This acoustic scarcity is echoed in the music: both bands emphasize low-end frequencies and a limited melodic range, effectively channeling the oppressive atmosphere of industrial life and amplifying the emotional starkness at the core of their sound.

This according to “Channelling the darkness: Group flow and environmental expression in the music of Black Sabbath and Joy Division” by Steve M. Taylor (Metal music studies 7/1[2021] 85–102; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-4270).

Black Sabbath played their final concert last week on 5 July 2025 at Villa Park in Aston, Birmingham, England. They are widely considered the pioneers of contemporary heavy metal.

Below, Black Sabbath performs Electric funeral on their farewell tour. The next video features Joy Division performing Transmission in September 1979.

Pre-Columbian musical elements in the Veracruz region

The Veracruz region forms part of Mesoamerica—a broad geocultural area in Central America where diverse cultural traits developed and spread beginning around 1500 B.C.E., culminating in the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in 1521. Many of these cultural characteristics remain evident in the region to this day. Mesoamerica encompasses much of present-day Mexico, along with significant portions of Central America. Over a span of 3,000 years, numerous cultures emerged, flourished, and subsequently declined within this area, exhibiting both distinct differences and a shared set of features now identified as Mesoamerican. Due to this cultural continuity, it is important–especially in the study of specific regions like Veracruz and the Gulf Coast–to differentiate between local traditions and elements common across Mesoamerica. This distinction is particularly relevant when examining musical instruments, as only a limited number of sound-producing objects appear to be unique to specific regions.

No known music from the Veracruz or Gulf Coast region has survived from pre-Columbian times. While the region’s folkloric genres likely retain elements from earlier periods, it is challenging to distinguish these features from those shaped by later cultural influences. Although this is a common feature across Mesoamerica, there are notable exceptions. In Guatemala, for instance, certain bailes (dance performances), such as the Rab’inal Achí and the baile de las canastas, have been shown to preserve rhythmic systems, instrumental roles, intervallic structures, and song forms that are almost certainly of pre-Columbian origin. Such bailes–which may contain traces of ancient musical systems–are not confined to Guatemala but continue to be performed across various regions of Latin America.

A festival featuring Rab’inal Achí in Guatemala.

Ethnomusicological studies to identify surviving pre-Columbian musical elements in the contemporary traditions of the northern Gulf Coast have largely been inconclusive. The only potentially significant example is the ritual dance bisom tiu (the hawk or eagle dance), which continues to be performed at the ancient Huastec site of Tamtoc. However, the accompanying music lacks the non-Western features found in Guatemalan bailes and does not exhibit any unique characteristics that have yet to be documented elsewhere. Nonetheless, certain rhythmic elements appear to retain connections to the pre-Hispanic soundscape of the Veracruz/Gulf Coast region. Excavations in the area have uncovered hundreds, if not thousands, of musical instruments or fragments, many of which were clearly crafted to produce a wide range of timbral variations. The absence of standardized tuning among these instruments suggests that timbre may have been prioritized over pitch, intervals, or melodic structure in the region’s musical practices.

This according to this month’s featured article by Mark Howell on Pre-Columbian music of Veracruz. Find it in DEUMM Online.

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Filed under Central America, Dance, Dramatic arts, Geography, Instruments, World music

Tagged as bailes, Central America, Dance, Gulf Coast, Indigenous Americans, Instruments, Mesoamerica, Mexico, Veracruz

Category Archives: Ethnomusicology

M.L. Vasanthakumari: A playback singer of Karnatak vocal pedigree

Functions of the kidiu in East Malaysia

Cassettes as sound archives of the early Colombian punk scene

Music and the status of women in Igbo society

International Day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition (23 August)

The Hindustani bīṇ

A new model for Italian music production

Mongol and Han shamanic ritual music

Black Sabbath and Joy Division channel the sounds of industrialized England

Pre-Columbian musical elements in the Veracruz region

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