Category Archives: Ethnomusicology

International Day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition (23 August)

This Saturday, 23 August, is UNESCO’s International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, which seeks to “inscribe the tragedy of the slave trade in the memory of all peoples”. The date coincides with the 1791 uprising in Saint Domingue, today the Republic of Haiti, that so heavily impacted the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. In regions like the Caribbean, northern South America, and Brazil, music and culture have been deeply shaped by the historical conditions of African slavery and fusion and syncretization that arose from European colonialism. Today, the Afro-Latin musical roots of genres such as salsa, Cuban son, Brazilian samba and bossa nova, Dominican merengue, and Panamanian and Puerto Rican reggaetón, among many others, continue to echo the enduring legacy of slavery in the Americas.

To observe the International Day, read the entry on slavery in Ilan Stavans’s Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes, which traces the abhorrent practice globally, with a detailed section on the Haitian Revolution, the first and only successful slave rebellion to dismantle the plantation system and achieve political independence. The rebellion reverberated across the New World and sparked a wave of newfound consciousness and hope among Black populations throughout the Americas, while simultaneously triggering reactionary and often violent responses from European and criollo planters and other ruling elites.

Prise de la Ravine-à-Couleuvres (Capture of the Ravine-à-Couleuvres, 23 February 1802), by Karl Girardet, engraved by Jean-Jacques Outhwaite.

Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes provides an in-depth exploration of the rich and diverse world of Latin American music, examining its history, cultural significance, and the wide range of genres it encompasses. Spanning five centuries and 25 countries, the encyclopedia, covers the evolution of Latin music from its roots in Indigenous, African, and European traditions to its contemporary global influence. It offers detailed profiles of influential musicians, including iconic figures such as Tito Puente, Celia Cruz, Placido Domingo, and Carlos Santana, shedding light on their contributions to the development of Latin music and their lasting legacies. The two volumes delve into key genres like salsa, merengue, bachata, tango, and reggaetón, discussing their origins, stylistic characteristics, and cultural impact across different Latin American countries and communities. In addition to genre exploration, Latin music touches on broader themes of identity, migration, and the ways in which Latin music has become a vehicle for social and political expression. The encyclopedia’s 244 entries also include sociopolitical factors that have shaped Latin American music’s growth and dissemination. This is a key resource for music researchers looking to understand the musical traditions, key figures, and cultural contexts that have defined music in Latin America and its enduring global appeal.

Find the entry on slavery written by Ruthie Meadows in Latin music: Musicians, genres, and themes located in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The first image is of Sexteto Habanero (circa 1925), an early Cuban son band from Havana, Cuba.

Related Bibliolore posts:

https://bibliolore.org/2021/10/04/cubas-tonadas-trinitarias/

https://bibliolore.org/2019/01/07/the-tigueras-of-merengue-tipico/

https://bibliolore.org/2022/10/14/breaking-barriers-in-latinx-musical-practices-an-annotated-bibliography/

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Filed under Migrations, Politics, Popular music, Resources, RILM, South America, West Indies, World music

The Hindustani bīṇ

The term “vīṇā” has appeared in various Vedic texts dating back to the early first millennium B.C.E. Originally a generic designation for stringed instruments, the term has been used in diverse ways across India and throughout parts of Southeast Asia. Evolving directly from earlier medieval stick zithers, the Hindustani bīṇ (the word for vīṇā or rudra veena in North India) came to be regarded as one of the most esteemed instruments in the Hindustani musical tradition. Alongside the rabāb, the bīṇ held a central place in court and classical music traditions. Its significance was underscored by the honorary title mahatī vīṇā (the great vīṇā). The art of playing the bīṇ was transmitted through hereditary family traditions, or gharānās, some of which trace their lineage back to the legendary court musician Tānsen, who served under the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Musical knowledge was closely guarded within these lineages, and professional performance of the bīṇ was typically restricted to male members of the family.

A portrait of the Hindustani classical musician, Mian Tansen.

The modern form of the bīṇ likely emerged during the 19th century. Earlier versions featured a string holder made of bamboo with wooden end pieces inserted; later designs replaced this with a fully wooden tube, constructed by joining two hollowed-out halves. At the lower end sits a high, often hollow bridge supported by a wide, arched piece of bone. The instrument now has 24 tall wooden frets with metal inlays along the playing edges, laced on in a movable fashion. Seven large tuning pegs are inserted through the string holder from both the right and left sides. Four main playing strings run across the frets, accompanied by three additional strings—used for drone and rhythmic punctuation—two positioned on the left side of the tube (closest to the player) and one on the right. These auxiliary strings each rest on separate, broad bone bridges at the lower end of the instrument. Two large resonators, made from bottle gourds fitted with wooden components, are attached to the back of the string carrier using hollow threaded fittings. Each resonator has a hand-sized round opening at the rear, contributing to the bīṇ’s distinctive tonal resonance.

This according to a recently published entry on the vina by Pia Srinivasan Buonomo in MGG Online.

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Filed under Asia, Instruments, World music

A new model for Italian music production

RCA Italiana, established in Rome in 1951 as a subsidiary of the Radio Corporation of America, became one of the most influential Italian record labels of the 20th century. Its foundation was supported not only by the Vatican but also by funding from the 1948 European Recovery Program–better known as the Marshall Plan. Under the leadership of Ennio Melis, RCA earned a prominent role in Italian popular music, and from 1962 onward, some of the most iconic figures in Italian music recorded at its expansive studios on Via Tiburtina, as well as the more intimate Cenacolo studios. Artists such as Ennio Morricone, Gianni Morandi, Patty Pravo, Francesco De Gregori, and Antonello Venditti all passed through its doors. However, after its peak in the early 1960s and into the mid-1970s, RCA faced a significant decline, partly due to the bankruptcy of its parent company and shifts in the global market. The 1980s saw the company’s final fall, culminating in its sale to Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) in 1986. Despite its decline, the RCA brand—once a symbol of the golden age of the Italian recording industry—still exists today under the Sony Music catalog.

RCA Italiana employee testing a record plate.

Listen to Nico Fidenco‘s La voglia di ballare here. This and many other Italian pop recordings were produced at RCA Italiana.

The company was originally named Radio e Televisione Italiana SpA (RTI). Its president, Count Enrico Pietro Galeazzi Lisi, who was a special delegate of the Pope, oversaw its establishment, while the driving force behind the project was Giuseppe Antonino Biondo, a Sicilian engineer and naturalized U.S. citizen working for the American RCA. The name RCA Italiana SpA was officially adopted in July 1954, a year after the company made the somewhat controversial decision to shift its focus to record production. Initially, the U.S. multinational appeared more interested in exporting its phonographic and radio-television equipment. However, by the end of 1953, the company outlined a new program for releases on 78 rpm records, coinciding with the final wave of Marshall Plan funding. To kickstart this new direction, Biondo enlisted renowned composer and conductor Armando Trovajoli and several other prominent Italian musicians. The new catalogue marked a departure from the dominant the American RCA and its classical repertoire, helping to usher in a new era of Italian music. These recordings took shape in a variety of studios already equipped with RCA technology.

Aerial view of the RCA Italiana campus.

In June 1962, the complex of recording studios on Via Tiburtina was officially inaugurated. The facility was a flagship of the company, featuring a centralized production system inspired by the U.S. model. This system consolidated all phases of the production process–recording, mastering, pressing, and storage–into one multipurpose campus. The heart of the complex was a striking red studio building (see the first image in this post), which featured the RCA Italiana sign, prominently visible from the Raccordo Anulare, the nearby ring road. Inside, the campus housed four recording studios spread across different floors: Studio A, the largest, was designed for big orchestras; studio B, about half the size of studio A, was used for vocals, instrumental recordings, soundtracks, and film dubbing; and the smaller studios C and D were intended for more smaller productions.

Studio A control room.

Production facilities at RCA Italiana.

Additionally, there were three natural echo chambers (reverberation rooms) built underground to minimize interference from external sounds. However, vibrations from the increasingly heavy traffic on the nearby ring road rendered these chambers unusable, prompting the development of artificial reverb technology. The other building on the site contained office spaces, warehouses dedicated to pressing records, and other storage areas for the finished products. Although the album covers were printed by third-party companies, the design work was carried out on the campus, ensuring a fully integrated creative process.

This according to a newly published entry on RCA Italiana by Francesco Brusco in DEUMM Online.

Watch an documentary in Italian on the history RCA Italiana here.

RCA Italiana employees testing recordings.

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Filed under Acoustics, Europe, Mass media, Music industry, Performers, Popular music

Mongol and Han shamanic ritual music

Lingshen, or “welcoming the deity,” is a shamanic ritual music practiced by the Mongol people of Horqin and the Han people of Jutai in China. It emerges within the context of healing ceremonies led by a shaman and their assistant, typically performed for individuals experiencing hysteria. Central to this practice is the shamanic belief that all aspects of the world are governed by spirits, and that divine protection is granted only to those who express deep devotion and reverence toward the gods. In this spiritual framework, the divine is omnipresent, reflecting a worldview rooted in the principle that “all things have spirits”. This belief system is intimately tied to the rhythm of daily village life, shaped through the intertwined development of culture and ritual. Shamanism stands at the heart of this musical culture.

The lingshen ritual encompasses a rich tapestry of sonic elements: the ritual specialist evokes spirits through the striking of percussion instruments, a designated singer delivers spiritually resonant melodies, and the faithful respond with rhythmic hand clapping, creating a musical dialogue between humans and the divine. These performances are more than ceremonial; they serve as transmission vessels for shamanic musical culture, deeply rooted in local folk customs and shaped by the lived experiences of village life.

Horqin’s vast grasslands in northern China are characteristic of the region’s landscape.

Geographically, Horqin’s proximity to Jilin province and its historical inclusion of the Jiutai district in Changchun has fostered a cross-cultural exchange. During the early Qing dynasty, intermingling between the Mongol and Han populations–through trade, migration, and shared ritual practice–deeply influenced the evolution of local shamanic music traditions. As a result, lingshen embodies not only sacred spiritual intent but also the historical flow of musical motifs and ritual structures across ethnic and regional boundaries.

The songs performed in lingshen rituals serve distinctly functional purposes within the spiritual framework of shamanic healing. For practitioners, their use is twofold: first, the shaman employs music to express the community’s reverence and devotion to the deities, acting as an intermediary voice between the people and the divine; second, through prayerful singing and coordinated ritual sound, both the shaman and the faithful aim to soothe and honor the gods in accordance with the wishes of the villagers. This musical invocation is believed to facilitate a swift descent of the spirits into the ritual space, thereby initiating the healing process and affirming spiritual presence.

The frame drums above are key instruments in the rituals of both the Horqin Mongolian and Jiutai Han shamans.

A comparative study of the shamanic musical traditions among the Mongolian and Han peoples in Horqin and Jiutai reveals a pattern of coordinated cultural development. During the early Qing Dynasty, political alliances and intermarriages between Horqin Mongols and the Manchus served to preserve each group’s regime stability. These relationships, along with sustained political and economic exchange and the movement of Mongolian and Han populations within the region, fostered the emergence of new village social structures. The evolving social frameworks and their intersecting cultural subsystems laid fertile ground for mutual influence, shaping the trajectory of shamanic music culture in both communities.

This according to 萨满音乐的协同与影响—科尔沁蒙古族与九台汉族萨满领神音乐之比较 (The synergy and influence of shamanic music: A comparison of the shamanic lingshen music of the Mongol people  in Horqin and the Han people in Jiutai) by Wang Xiaodong (Zhongyang Yinyue Xueyuan xuebao/Journal of the Central Conservatory of Music 4:165 [fall 2021] 31–46; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature 2021-17727). Find this journal in RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text.

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Filed under Asia, Ethnomusicology, Religious music, World music

Black Sabbath and Joy Division channel the sounds of industrialized England

Scholars have long drawn connections between urban life and specific music genres, especially heavy metal. The British bands Black Sabbath and Joy Division serve as compelling case studies, exemplifying how their music emerged as a reflection of the bleak, industrial landscapes of 1960s and 1970s England. Despite belonging to different genres, both bands share a profound commonality: their sound was forged by—and evocative of—the desolation of these environments. This influence is particularly evident through key musical elements, including an unusually bass-heavy sonic palette, repetitive and continuous textures, austere arrangements, rigid song structures, and lyrical themes steeped in urban alienation.

Though separated by roughly a decade, Black Sabbath and Joy Division each aligned loosely with the dominant musical movements of their time. Black Sabbath emerged from the late 1960s blues rock scene, while Joy Division was a product of the post-punk wave of the late 1970s. Despite the differing genres, both bands distinguished themselves through striking originality and enduring influence. Their impact can be traced to two key sources: a strong sense of group synergy and their ability to channel shared urban-industrial experiences into music. In this sense, their music evokes a soundscape of similarly bleak and oppressive environments.

Black Sabbath in 1970. From left to right: Ozzy Osbourne, Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler, and Bill Ward.

A defining similarity between Black Sabbath and Joy Division lies in the pervasive darkness and heaviness of both their sound and lyrical content. This shared aesthetic reflects a fascination with bleak and nihilistic themes–ranging from personal alienation and psychological turmoil to pressing social concerns such as war and drug addiction, particularly prominent in Black Sabbath’s music. This sonic and thematic weight can be traced directly to the oppressive industrial environments that shaped each band’s identity. Black Sabbath’s members, for instance, were raised in Aston, a war-scarred inner-city district of Birmingham marked by factories, soot-covered terrace houses, smoking chimneys, and remnants of World War II bomb sites. Such surroundings weren’t just the backdrop of their lives; they seeped into the music, transforming lived experience into powerful soundscapes of urban despair.

Joy Division in Manchester, 1979. Photo credit: Kevin Cummins

Joy Division’s origins closely mirrored those of Black Sabbath, shaped by similarly stark surroundings. Bassist Peter Hook and guitarist Bernard Sumner–the band’s central creative forces–grew up in Salford, a working class area near Manchester, during the 1960s and 1970s. Sumner vividly described his neighborhood as “a potted version of the entire, industrialized northwest,” listing iron works, copper works, cloth-finishing factories, paint and chemical plants, cotton mills, sawmills, and brass foundries—all within walking distance of his home. Despite a strong sense of community fostered by tightly packed terraced houses that fronted directly onto the street, the neighborhood was shadowed by frequent violence and a culture that emphasized emotional stoicism and cold, hardened masculinity.

A Manchester cotton mill, early 20th century.

The primal, bass-heavy, riff-driven sound of both Black Sabbath and Joy Division mirrors the industrial landscapes from which they emerged. Factories, conveyor belts, trains, and constant traffic created a dense low-frequency soundscape–a persistent rumble and thunder that saturated the environment. Although high-pitched noises occur in such settings, they are typically brief and peripheral, sharply contrasting with the ever-present bass tones. The absence of natural high-frequency sounds–such as birdsong or rustling leaves–further contributes to the sonic bleakness, depriving the environment of melodic brightness. This acoustic scarcity is echoed in the music: both bands emphasize low-end frequencies and a limited melodic range, effectively channeling the oppressive atmosphere of industrial life and amplifying the emotional starkness at the core of their sound.

This according to “Channelling the darkness: Group flow and environmental expression in the music of Black Sabbath and Joy Division” by Steve M. Taylor (Metal music studies 7/1[2021] 85–102; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature, 2021-4270).

Black Sabbath played their final concert last week on 5 July 2025 at Villa Park in Aston, Birmingham, England. They are widely considered the pioneers of contemporary heavy metal.

Below, Black Sabbath performs Electric funeral on their farewell tour. The next video features Joy Division performing Transmission in September 1979.

Related Bibliolore posts:

https://bibliolore.org/2018/04/16/black-sabbath-and-nietzsche/

https://bibliolore.org/2023/10/24/metal-blade-records-pioneering-la-heavy-music-label/

https://bibliolore.org/2009/12/28/advanced-musicology/

https://bibliolore.org/2012/03/23/punk-post-punk/

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Filed under Europe, Geography, Labor, Performers, Popular music, Sound, Space

Pre-Columbian musical elements in the Veracruz region

The Veracruz region forms part of Mesoamerica—a broad geocultural area in Central America where diverse cultural traits developed and spread beginning around 1500 B.C.E., culminating in the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in 1521. Many of these cultural characteristics remain evident in the region to this day. Mesoamerica encompasses much of present-day Mexico, along with significant portions of Central America. Over a span of 3,000 years, numerous cultures emerged, flourished, and subsequently declined within this area, exhibiting both distinct differences and a shared set of features now identified as Mesoamerican. Due to this cultural continuity, it is important–especially in the study of specific regions like Veracruz and the Gulf Coast–to differentiate between local traditions and elements common across Mesoamerica. This distinction is particularly relevant when examining musical instruments, as only a limited number of sound-producing objects appear to be unique to specific regions.

No known music from the Veracruz or Gulf Coast region has survived from pre-Columbian times. While the region’s folkloric genres likely retain elements from earlier periods, it is challenging to distinguish these features from those shaped by later cultural influences. Although this is a common feature across Mesoamerica, there are notable exceptions. In Guatemala, for instance, certain bailes (dance performances), such as the Rab’inal Achí and the baile de las canastas, have been shown to preserve rhythmic systems, instrumental roles, intervallic structures, and song forms that are almost certainly of pre-Columbian origin. Such bailes–which may contain traces of ancient musical systems–are not confined to Guatemala but continue to be performed across various regions of Latin America.

A performance of Rab’inal Achí.

A festival featuring Rab’inal Achí in Guatemala.

Ethnomusicological studies to identify surviving pre-Columbian musical elements in the contemporary traditions of the northern Gulf Coast have largely been inconclusive. The only potentially significant example is the ritual dance bisom tiu (the hawk or eagle dance), which continues to be performed at the ancient Huastec site of Tamtoc. However, the accompanying music lacks the non-Western features found in Guatemalan bailes and does not exhibit any unique characteristics that have yet to be documented elsewhere. Nonetheless, certain rhythmic elements appear to retain connections to the pre-Hispanic soundscape of the Veracruz/Gulf Coast region. Excavations in the area have uncovered hundreds, if not thousands, of musical instruments or fragments, many of which were clearly crafted to produce a wide range of timbral variations. The absence of standardized tuning among these instruments suggests that timbre may have been prioritized over pitch, intervals, or melodic structure in the region’s musical practices.

This according to this month’s featured article by Mark Howell on Pre-Columbian music of Veracruz. Find it in DEUMM Online.

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Filed under Central America, Dance, Dramatic arts, Geography, Instruments, World music

Improvisation schemas and the Turkmen dutar

The Turkmen dutar is a long-necked, two-stringed lute distinguished by its pear-shaped resonating body and thin wooden soundboard. Both the body and soundboard are carved from mulberry wood, while the neck is crafted from the dried trunk of an apricot tree. To construct the instrument, the mulberry wood is carefully rounded, hollowed out, and polished to shape the body. The soundboard wood undergoes a drying process—baked for up to 24 hours to eliminate moisture—before being affixed over the hollowed chamber using traditional bone glue. Traditionally tuned a fourth apart, its two strings serve distinct musical functions: the higher-pitched string carries the primary melody, while the lower-pitched string is often muted by the thumb of the playing hand to produce a shifting parallel melody. Alternatively, the lower string may ring open to function as a drone in certain pieces or passages. Believed to descend from ancient Babylonian and Egyptian lutes, the dutar today is primarily used to accompany Turkmen bards known as bagşy (or bakshy). In the south central Ahal region of Turkmenistan, however, dutar players have cultivated a solo instrumental repertoire. Historically passed down orally, this body of music has, in recent decades, seen partial transcription into a modified form of Western notation for pedagogical purposes. Formally sophisticated and largely through-composed, the repertoire still allows space for variation and interpretive flexibility.

Oghlan Bakhshi (middle), a virtuoso Turkmen dutar player, performs with his group.

In Turkmen music, the term hasap, which literally means account or reckoning, carries a range of other nuanced meanings. In everyday use, one might request a hasap when settling a bill at a restaurant or inquiring about the score of a game. Within musical contexts, hasap denotes various interpretive and structural concepts. Musicians may refer to a particular master’s hasap for a given piece, or more generally to the shared hasap of a composition. Along with related terms such as nusga, forma, and skema, hasap can indicate a skeletal melodic framework that individual performers elaborate through ornamentation and stylistic variation. Comparative transcriptions of extended passages–whether interpreted by multiple dutar players or revisited by the same performer–often reveal consistency in underlying structure, with variation appearing primarily in melodic embellishment, rhythmic phrasing, and the treatment of the lower string.

Excerpt from the song Balsaýat, transcribed by Ýazmyrat Rejepow.

Turkmen dutar players navigate the dual imperative to both preserve and creatively reinterpret traditional repertoire. To do so, they draw on a repertoire of internalized formulas, compositional schemas, and aesthetic principles to generate new musical material–whether in improvisation or composition. These strategies parallel those found in other music traditions, such as Hindustani music, Persian classical music, and jazz, where deep immersion in a musical system enables spontaneous creativity within established boundaries. Like Persian musicians who internalize the radif through prolonged apprenticeship, Turkmen performers absorb such frameworks, often without formal codification. Turkmen dutar players, however, tend to reapply these principles not just in improvisatory spaces, but within the reinterpretation of the inherited compositions themselves.

This according to “Principles of transmission and collective composition in Turkmen dutar performance” by David Fossum (Analytical approaches to world musics 5/2 [2017] 37 p.; RILM Abstracts with Full Text, 2017-43691) and the entry on the dutar in Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary (1964); find it in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

The Turkmen dutar is on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Below, Oghlan Bakhshi performs the traditional Turkmen song Boy bibi. The video after it, created by UNESCO, is on dutar making and performance.

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Filed under Asia, Ethnomusicology, Instruments, Nature, World music

Francis Bebey globalizes African music

The Cameroonian composer, writer, sculptor, and musicologist Francis Bebey was widely recognized as one of Africa’s foremost songwriters. His talent, however, reached far beyond music. Bebey earned a B.S. in mathematics from a college in Douala and later pursued further education at the Sorbonne in Paris, where he was deeply influenced by classical guitarist Andrés Segovia. He studied broadcasting at the Studio-école de la Radiodiffusion Outre-Mer in Paris and at New York University. Although known mostly for his literary work, Bebey was also an accomplished classical guitarist and composer. His musical journey began in his youth with a band in Cameroon, where he composed original music noted for its poetic lyrics and emotive vocal delivery. By 1967, he had recorded several pieces and performed in major cultural hubs, including New York City, Paris, and across Africa. His style was notably experimental, blending elements of Latin American, Western, and African musical traditions with rolling synthesizer patterns looped over drum machines. Among his most acclaimed recordings are Akwaaba (1985), Amaya (1987), and Dibiye (1998).

Akwaaba (1985) cover art.
Amaya (1987) cover art.

Francis Bebey toured extensively across the United States, Canada, Europe, and Africa, offering solo recitals and lecture concerts. His repertoire was a blend of African folk songs and original compositions, often rooted in traditional African musical elements. Among his most acclaimed works are The Ashanti doll is sleeping (1967), Black tears (1963)–a wordless poem dedicated to the participants of the March on Washington, D.C.–The Poet’s virile prayer (1973), which features text by Aimé Césaire, and Concert for an old mask (1965).

La Condition Masculine
Bebey and his son, Patrick, perform Esok am and Mon secret.

Bebey was also a distinguished literary figure, leaving behind a diverse body of work that includes poetry, short stories, novels, and essays. His first novel, Le fils d’Agatha Moudio (Agatha Moudio’s son, 1971), published in 1967, was widely acclaimed as a masterful work of burlesque and was awarded the Grand Prix Littéraire de l’Afrique Noire. In 1968, he released Embarras et cie: Nouvelles et poèmes, a collection of nine short stories, each paired with a poem. Bebey noted that his extensive experience as a radio broadcaster significantly shaped his storytelling style, which he wrote with listeners, rather than readers, in mind. His later literary works include La poupée Ashanti (1973, The Ashanti doll) and Le roi Albert d’Effidi (1973). Bebey also contributed a book on broadcasting in Africa and two important texts on African music, most notably Musique de l’Afrique (1969). By 1972, he had joined UNESCO in Paris as the head of the music department, where he continued to champion African music traditions–traveling extensively, primarily in Africa, studying, recording, and filming musicians across the continent. In a 1982 interview, Bebey explained, “What I’m aiming to do is to use Western technology to invigorate African music and spread its message internationally.”

This according to the entry on Francis Bebey by Eileen Southern in the Biographical dictionary of Afro-American and African musicians (1982). Find it in RILM Music Encyclopedias.

Bebey’s book Musique de l’Afrique was published in 1969.

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Filed under Africa, Ethnomusicology, Europe, Musicologists, Performers, Popular music, World music

Montréal’s rich musical and intellectual life

As the capital of Québec, Montréal is home to around 40% of the province’s population—approximately 2 million people, as of 2021. The city was originally settled by the Iroquois along the Saint Lawrence River before being established as Ville-Marie in 1642 by Catholic missionaries. Nearly a century earlier, in 1535, Jacques Cartier documented his visit to the Indigenous village of Hochelaga, a thriving community of around 1,500 inhabitants at the foot of Mount Royal. However, by the time the missionaries arrived, no trace of Hochelaga remained. Montréal’s location, at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Outaouais Rivers in southwestern Québec, was ideal for settlement due to its access to natural resources.

Aerial view of Montréal in 1930. Photo courtesy of Archives de la Ville de Montréal.

Montréal’s Jacques Cartier Square, circa 1900. Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress.
Cartier Square today. Photo credit: Taylor McIntyre

By the late 18th century, Montréal’s cultural landscape had begun to flourish with the construction of theaters, organized tours, and a growing concert-going audience. In 1789, composer and poet Joseph Quesnel, along with painter Louis Dulongpré, established the Théâtre de Société, where Quesnel premiered Colas et Colinette, recognized as the first Canadian opera, in 1790. The city’s theatrical development continued in 1825 with the opening of the Théâtre Royal, located on the site of today’s Marché Bonsecours, which attracted talented singers from Europe and the United States.

Since the 19th century, Montréal’s vibrant musical scene has thrived through clubs and organizations dedicated to enriching public performances. The Ladies’ Morning Musical Club, established in 1892, welcomed legendary performers such as Vladimir Horowitz, Arthur Rubinstein, Glenn Gould, Isaac Stern, Jean-Pierre Rampal, and Pierrette Alarie. In 1919, Elizabeth Griswold Waycott founded the Delphic Study Club, which hosted an annual music week from 1923 to 1937, featuring free concerts in theaters, shops, schools, churches, and other public spaces. Another significant contribution came in 1948 with the founding of Société Pro Musica by Gertrude Constant Gendreau, known for its diverse programming of local and international musicians.

Ernest Lavigne and his Orchestra, Sohmer Park, Montreal.

Beginning in 1979, the Prix Gertrude Gendreau has recognized outstanding Montréal students, while several major music institutions have made the city their home–including Youth and Music Canada (since 1949), the Canadian Music Center’s Quebec branch (since 1973), the Quebec Music Council (since 1987), and the World Musicians’ Centre (since 2017). From 1965 to 1980, the Montréal International Music Competition awarded a special prize for the best interpretation of a compulsory piece composed by a Canadian artist.  

The Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Quebec National Library and Archives) in Montréal.

Montréal has hosted major international events, including the 1967 World’s Fair (Expo 67) and the 1976 Summer Olympics, further cementing its reputation as a global cultural hub. Today, the city is home to four universities and numerous research centers, as well as key institutions like the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Quebec National Library and Archives) and the Radio-Canada Museum. Montreal’s rich arts scene includes a network of cultural centers, theaters, event spaces, and museums. The city also boasts two symphony orchestras and a prestigious opera house, reinforcing its status as a thriving center for artistic and intellectual life.

This according to MGG Online’s featured article of the month by Ariane Couture, entitled Montréal.

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Filed under Geography, Musicology, North America, Opera, Performers

The Chilean guitarrón

The guitarrón, an instrument of central Chile, is known as one of the most complex stringed instruments in the Americas due to its unique string arrangement and quantity. Shaped like a guitar, the guitarrón features a total of 25 strings–21 arranged in five courses, with an additional four strings positioned along the sides. The guitarrón is customarily used to accompany sung poetry in décimas, a Spanish stanza form consisting of ten lines.

The cover of Hugo Arévalo’s album El guitarrón y el canto a lo pueta (1970).

In performance, the guitarrón is held similarly to a guitar, with the left hand muting the strings along the neck and the right hand plucking them over the body. The instrument’s position can vary from horizontal to vertical, depending on the musician’s preference and their proximity to other performers. Guitarrón players, known as guitarroneros, are often also proficient guitarists, capable of executing a wide range of strumming techniques–though these are never applied to the guitarrón. Instead, the instrument is played exclusively with plucking techniques. Occasionally, one or two notes are struck rapidly with the index finger as an ornamental flourish, but traditional guitar strumming is avoided. When guitarrón repertoire is performed on guitar, musicians typically imitate the plucked pizzicato style.

Photo credit: Rodrigo Pardo

The history of the Chilean guitarrón remains largely unclear. Its origins can be traced back to the Spanish guitar, rather than the more refined vihuela favored by the urban elite. The guitarrón shares the general body shape and structural features of the guitar, though with certain variations. Its development mirrors the evolution of the Spanish guitar introduced to the Americas from the 16th century onward. Early guitars of that period typically had four strings, arranged in single or double courses. By the late 16th century, the five-course guitar emerged and remained prevalent in rural regions, even after the seven-course guitar gained popularity in urban centers toward the end of the 18th century. Interestingly, the modern six-string guitar is sometimes still used as a five-course instrument, either by loosening the sixth string or tuning it in unison with the fifth.

This according to DEUMM Online’s featured article of the month by José Pérez de Arce, entitled Chilean guitarrón.

Hugo Arévalo performs on the guitarrón below. The video after it, featuring Santos Rubio on guitarrón, was made by Daniel Sheehy, the ethnomusicologist and future director and curator of Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, in 1973 during his fieldwork in Chile.

Related Bibliolore posts:

https://bibliolore.org/2024/07/30/villa-lobos-bachianas-brasileiras/

https://bibliolore.org/2020/06/04/the-chanterelle-guitar-anthology/

https://bibliolore.org/2015/07/09/classical-guitar-music-in-printed-collections/

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Filed under Instruments, Performance practice, Performers, Popular music, South America, Uncategorized, World music